• Aztecs (1519-21) were militarily conquered by Spain — their civilisation was destroyed, people enslaved
• Japanese (1853) faced US pressure but were NOT conquered — they signed a trade treaty
• Japan responded proactively: studied European powers, modernised the state, built an army, retained sovereignty
• Key difference: Japan had a centralised government capable of strategic response; the Aztecs faced a surprise military attack with no preparation

• Nishitani defined 'modern' as unity of: Renaissance + Protestant Reformation + Natural Sciences
• Partial agreement: these shaped Western modernity and global science
• Disagreement: Eurocentric — ignores non-Western contributions (Islamic, Chinese, Indian sciences)
• Japan's modernisation proves modernity need not copy the West; it used its own traditions creatively
• Better definition: industrialisation + rational governance + individual rights — not tied to European religious/artistic movements

• The European painting shows a naval battle — depicts military aspect only
• Does NOT show: economic exploitation (triangular trade), human suffering from opium addiction, or China's political humiliation
• A Chinese artist would portray it as an unjust attack on sovereignty
• Conclusion: Paintings reflect the painter's perspective; this glorifies military power rather than showing injustice

• Buck Clayton (Black American musician) was assaulted by white Americans in Shanghai
• He sympathised with Chinese people — also being exploited by foreigners
• Shared experience of injustice creates solidarity across different groups
• Both groups understood what it meant to be treated as inferior by dominant powers
• Oppression creates unexpected alliances and a sense of common cause — the enemy of my enemy is my friend

• Commercial economy had already developed under the Tokugawa shogunate
• Edo was the world's most populated city; urban culture and literacy were high
• Vibrant printing culture spread knowledge widely — books rented cheaply
• Merit began to be valued over hereditary status — merchant class grew
• Silk industry (Nishijin) and rice stock markets showed economic sophistication
• Study of Japanese literature created national identity and reduced dependence on Chinese models

• Patriarchal joint families replaced by nuclear families (homu/home)
• New domestic goods appeared: electric appliances, affordable housing (1920s)
• Transport: electric trams, department stores from late 19th century
• Entertainment: public parks (1878), movies (1899), radio (1925)
• 'Moga' (Modern Girl) represented gender equality and cosmopolitan culture
• Women gained visibility as workers, actresses and cultural figures
• Ginza in Tokyo became fashionable leisure area (Ginbura = leisurely strolling)

• Reformers Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated changes
• Built modern administrative system and new army
• Set up educational institutions and local assemblies for constitutional government
• Sent students to Japan, Britain and France for modern education
• Abolished the traditional examination system in 1905
• However, reforms were too slow and limited; dynasty fell in 1911

• Nationalism: Overthrow the Manchu (foreign dynasty) and expel all foreign imperialists
• Democracy: Establish democratic government for the people
• Socialism: Regulate capital and equalise landholdings to reduce inequality

• Emergency financial support obtained from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Government improved the country's economic constitution and governance
• Citizens actively participated through the Gold Collection Movement — donating gold to repay foreign loans
• These combined efforts helped Korea recover from the crisis

YES — both wars and environmental damage resulted:

• Wars: Aggressive foreign policy from 1890 → wars with China (1894-95) and Russia (1904-05), Korea annexed (1910), China invaded (1937), Pearl Harbor attack (1941)
• Empire: Colonial empire built to secure raw materials — brutal suppression in Korea, Taiwan, China
• Environment: Rapid unregulated growth → deforestation, Cadmium poisoning (Itai-itai disease), mercury poisoning at Minamata (1960s)
• Tanaka Shozo led first pollution protest in 1897
• Japan eventually enacted world's strictest environmental controls from mid-1980s
• Conclusion: Industrialisation and aggressive nationalism reinforced each other; fear of Western domination justified both — ultimately leading to WWII defeat

Successes:

• Ended centuries-old inequalities and removed foreign control
• Spread education; created national unity; gave women legal rights
• Land redistribution; abolition of arranged marriages; mass literacy campaigns

Failures:

• Great Leap Forward → widespread famine (estimated millions dead)
• Cultural Revolution → severely damaged education, economy and culture
• Repressive political system silenced dissent; ideals turned into manipulation

Conclusion:

• Partially successful — liberated China from foreign control and inequality
• Current economic success is more due to Deng Xiaoping's 1978 reforms than Mao's ideology

Yes — economic growth created conditions for democracy:

• Industrialisation created a new educated middle class
• This class became aware of political rights and demanded democratic freedoms
• Industrial workers, students and citizens organised democracy movements
• June Democracy Movement (1987): broad participation from students AND middle class

But it was more complex:

• Economic success also initially strengthened authoritarianism (Park used it to justify Yusin Constitution)
• 1997 IMF crisis showed economic strength alone wasn't enough — democratic accountability also needed
• 2016 candlelight protests showed democracy matured through citizens' political courage, not just economics

Conclusion:

• Economic growth created social conditions for democracy; but democracy ultimately came through citizens' political awareness and courage