CH 10: Rebels and the Raj

Rebels and the Raj — The Revolt of 1857

📋 Contents

Key Terms
Timeline
Mind Map
How Revolt Began
Leaders
Rumours
Awadh
What Rebels Wanted
British Repression
Images of Revolt
Exercise Answers
Worksheet

📚 Key Terms

Sepoy	Indian soldier employed by the British East India Company
Mutiny	Collective disobedience of rules and regulations within the armed forces
Revolt/Rebellion	Uprising of civilian population (peasants, zamindars, rajas) against established authority
Firangi	Persian-origin derogatory term for foreigners (derived from 'Frank' — France); used in Urdu/Hindi
Bell of Arms	Storeroom in a cantonment where weapons are kept
Taluqdar	Large landholder in Awadh who controlled land and power in the countryside for generations
Ishtahar	Rebel notification/proclamation issued to mobilise people
Arzi	Petition or application; rebel sepoys' arzis are key primary sources
Subsidiary Alliance	System (1798, Lord Wellesley) where Indian rulers accepted British troops and Resident at court for protection
Resident	Representative of the Governor General living in a state not under direct British rule
Summary Settlement	First British revenue settlement in Awadh (1856) that removed taluqdars wherever possible

📅 Important Timeline

1798Subsidiary Alliance devised by Lord Wellesley
1801Subsidiary Alliance imposed on Awadh
1829Sati abolished by Lord William Bentinck
1851Dalhousie describes Awadh as "cherry that will drop into our mouth"
1856Nawab Wajid Ali Shah deposed; Awadh formally annexed
1856–57Summary Revenue Settlements introduced in Awadh
10 May 1857🔴 Mutiny begins in Meerut
11–12 MaySepoys reach Delhi; Bahadur Shah accepts nominal leadership
20–27 MayMutiny spreads to Aligarh, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah
30 MayRising in Lucknow
May–JuneMutiny becomes a general revolt of the people
30 JuneBritish suffer defeat in Battle of Chinhat
July 1857Shah Mal killed in battle
25 SeptBritish forces (Havelock & Outram) enter Residency, Lucknow
Late SeptDelhi finally recaptured by British
March 1858Awadh brought under British control after protracted fighting
June 1858Rani of Jhansi killed in battle

🗺️ Mind Map: Causes of the Revolt of 1857

Why did people join the Revolt of 1857?

Key Leaders of the Revolt of 1857

🏯 Delhi

Bahadur Shah Zafar
Last Mughal emperor; nominal leader; reluctant but accepted when cornered

🏴 Kanpur

Nana Sahib
Successor to Peshwa Baji Rao II; no choice but to lead; escaped to Nepal

⚔️ Jhansi

Rani Lakshmi Bai
Forced by public pressure to lead; fought valiantly; killed in battle 1858

🌾 Awadh

Birjis Qadr
Young son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah; hailed as leader in Lucknow

🏹 Bihar

Kunwar Singh
Local zamindar of Arrah; led revolt in Bihar region

🌾 UP

Shah Mal
Jat cultivator; mobilised 84 villages (chaurasee des); killed July 1857

🕌 Faizabad

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah
Known as Danka Shah; preached jihad; led 22nd Native Infantry; believed invincible

👑 Awadh

Begum Hazrat Mahal
Wife of Nawab; led Awadh resistance after Birjis Qadr; stayed with rebels in defeat

🔥 1. How the Revolt Began & Its Pattern

📅 10 May 1857 — Meerut:
Sepoys in Meerut cantonment broke into mutiny. It began in native infantry, spread to cavalry, then to the city. People of surrounding villages joined. They seized weapons, attacked British bungalows, destroyed government buildings, cut the telegraph line to Delhi, and rode off towards Delhi.

Arrival at Delhi (11 May 1857)

Sepoys reached the Red Fort during Ramzan. Bahadur Shah (who had just finished prayers) heard the commotion. Sepoys demanded his blessing, saying cartridges with cow/pig fat had corrupted their faith. Surrounded with no choice, Bahadur Shah agreed — giving the revolt legitimacy in the name of the Mughal emperor.

Pattern of Revolt in Every Cantonment

Signal given — firing of evening gun or sounding bugle
Seized bell of arms and plundered treasury
Attacked government buildings — jail, telegraph, record room, bungalows; burned all records
Proclamations in Hindi, Urdu, Persian urging Hindus & Muslims to unite against firangis
When civilians joined: moneylenders and the rich also targeted — seen as British allies

💡 Key Point: The mutiny in sepoy ranks quickly became a rebellion. There was general defiance of all authority and hierarchy.

Lines of Communication & Planning

7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry wrote to 48th Native Infantry: "acted for the faith and await your orders"
Sepoys or emissaries moved between cantonments
Panchayats of native officers held nightly in Kanpur — collective decision-making
Sepoys from same villages, same caste backgrounds — easy to organise

📢 2. Rumours and Prophecies

Rumour / Belief	Effect
Enfield cartridges greased with cow/pig fat	Sepoys refused to bite them; revolt in Meerut
Bone dust of cows/pigs mixed in flour sold in markets	People refused to buy atta; panic spread
British trying to convert Indians to Christianity	Widespread fear; hatred of missionaries
Chapattis being passed village to village	Seen as omen of upheaval (meaning still unclear)
British rule would end on centenary of Battle of Plassey (23 June 1857)	Gave people hope and a deadline to act

🧠 Why did people believe rumours?
Rumours made sense because of real British policies since 1820s — Western education, abolition of sati, annexation of kingdoms, Christian missionary activity. People felt their entire world — kings, customs, land, religion — was being destroyed. In such uncertainty, rumours spread rapidly and were believed.

Origin of the Cartridge Rumour

Captain Wright reported that in January 1857, a low-caste khalasi at Dum Dum magazine told a Brahmin sepoy: "You will soon lose your caste — you'll have to bite cartridges covered with fat of cows and pigs." Once the rumour started, no British assurance could stop it.

🏰 3. Awadh — Heart of the Revolt

Lord Dalhousie (1851): Described Awadh as "a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day." Five years later, in 1856, it was formally annexed.

The Subsidiary Alliance (1801)

Under this system: Nawab had to disband his military, allow British troops in his kingdom, and act as per the British Resident's advice. This made the Nawab dependent on British to maintain order — he could no longer control rebellious taluqdars.

Deposition of Wajid Ali Shah (1856)

Deposed on plea of misgovernance — but he was actually widely loved
People followed him to Kanpur singing laments
Contemporary wrote: "The life was gone out of the body"
Dissolution of court: musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, cooks all lost livelihood

Impact on Taluqdars

Pre-British	After British Summary Settlement (1856)
Taluqdars held 67% villages	Reduced to only 38%
Had armed retainers, own forts	Disarmed, forts destroyed
Autonomous under Nawab's suzerainty	Directly subjected to British law
Acted as paternalistic figure for peasants	Peasants exposed to inflexible revenue collection

📌 Key Link: Most Bengal Army sepoys were recruited from villages of Awadh — it was called the "nursery of the Bengal Army." Family suffering in villages fed into sepoy discontent. When sepoys revolted, villagers joined instantly.

🎯 4. What the Rebels Wanted

Vision of Unity

Proclamations appealed to all — Hindus and Muslims alike, irrespective of caste
Bahadur Shah's proclamation: fight under standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir
Azamgarh Proclamation (25 Aug 1857): addressed zamindars, merchants, public servants, artisans, pundits and fakirs separately
British spent ₹50,000 to incite Hindus against Muslims in Bareilly — attempt failed

Against Symbols of Oppression

Condemned British annexations and broken treaties
Attacked moneylenders — burnt account books, ransacked houses
Wanted to restore pre-British 18th-century world

Search for Alternative Power

Once British rule collapsed in places like Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, rebels set up structures: appointed officials, collected land revenue, paid troops, issued orders to stop looting, laid down chains of command. But these could not survive British onslaught — except in Awadh, where resistance lasted into 1858.

⚠️ Historian's Challenge: Very few rebel records survive — most rebels were illiterate. We mainly have British accounts. A few rebel proclamations (ishtahars) and arzis (petitions) are the primary rebel voices.

⚔️ 5. British Repression

May–June 1857: Martial law imposed over entire North India
Military officers and ordinary Britons given power to try and punish Indians — death was the only punishment
Two-pronged attack on Delhi: from Calcutta + from Punjab
Delhi recaptured in late September 1857 after heavy fighting (rebels from all over North India had come to defend it)
Awadh brought under control only in March 1858
British official Forsyth estimated three-fourths of adult male population of Awadh was in rebellion
To break peasant-taluqdar unity: promised estates back to loyal taluqdars
Rebels executed publicly — blown from guns or hanged — as performance of terror

🖼️ 6. Images of the Revolt

British Representations

Image	Artist / Year	Message
Relief of Lucknow	Thomas Jones Barker, 1859	Celebrates British heroes (Campbell, Outram, Havelock). Reassures British public rebellion is over. Heroes well-lit at centre; dead in foreground.
In Memoriam	Joseph Noel Paton, 1859	Helpless English women and children huddled, waiting for attack. Rebels invisible but implied as brutal. Provokes anger and demands revenge.
Miss Wheeler Defending Herself	Unknown	Heroic woman killing four burly rebels. Connected to defending honour of Christianity (Bible on floor). Rebels demonised.
Justice (Punch)	Punch, 12 Sept 1857	Allegorical female figure trampling sepoys. Sanctions brutal repression as just revenge.
Clemency of Canning (Punch)	Punch, 24 Oct 1857	Mocks Canning's call for mercy; sepoy holds bloody sword — public wanted vengeance not forgiveness.
Execution scenes	Illustrated London News, 1857	Public executions of rebels — blown from guns, hanged in rows — circulated as images. Punishment as theatre of terror.

Indian Nationalist Representations

Revolt celebrated as First War of Independence
Rani Lakshmi Bai portrayed as masculine warrior — sword in hand, on horse
Subhadra Kumari Chauhan: "Khoob lari mardani woh to Jhansi wali rani thi"
Images helped shape nationalist imagination and inspire the freedom movement

💡 Historian's Method: Images are not neutral — they are propaganda. Historians ask: Who made it? For what audience? What emotions does it provoke? What is shown/hidden? Both British and Indian images shaped public sensibilities — one justifying repression, the other inspiring resistance.

📖 Exercise Answers (100–150 words)

Q1. Why did mutinous sepoys turn to erstwhile rulers to provide leadership?

The sepoys turned to old rulers because they needed legitimacy and organised leadership. They lacked a unified political vision. By appealing to rulers like Bahadur Shah Zafar (Delhi), Nana Sahib (Kanpur), or Rani Lakshmi Bai (Jhansi), the revolt could be carried on in the name of recognised authority. These rulers gave the rebellion a traditional and familiar face, helping attract more people — Hindus and Muslims alike. It also suggested restoration of the pre-British order, which is what people wanted. Note: Most leaders initially refused and were pressured into accepting — e.g., Bahadur Shah's first reaction was "horror and rejection."

Q2. Discuss evidence that indicates planning and coordination among rebels.

Evidence of planning:
1. Same pattern across all cantonments — same sequence of seizing arms, attacking buildings, burning records — suggests prior communication.
2. Written message: 7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry wrote to 48th Native Infantry: "acted for the faith and await orders."
3. Emissaries moved between sepoy lines of different cantonments.
4. Nightly panchayats in Kanpur sepoy lines — decisions taken collectively (Charles Ball recorded this).
5. Revolt spread sequentially as news travelled — each cantonment rose after hearing about the previous one.

Q3. Discuss the extent to which religious beliefs shaped the events of 1857.

Religious beliefs were both a trigger and a unifying force. The immediate cause was the rumour about greased cartridges (cow/pig fat) — a direct threat to Hindu and Muslim faith. Other rumours: bone dust in flour, forced conversion to Christianity. The Azamgarh Proclamation addressed religious guardians (pundits, fakirs) specially. Bahadur Shah's proclamation invoked both Muhammad and Mahavir. Hindu-Muslim unity was remarkable — British attempt to divide them in Bareilly failed.

However, religion was not the only factor — economic (revenue, trade), political (annexation), and social (loss of status) grievances were equally important. Religion provided a common language to unite diverse groups around a shared identity.

Q4. What measures were taken to ensure unity among the rebels?

Measures for unity:
1. Proclamations addressed to all — regardless of caste, creed or religion.
2. Bahadur Shah's proclamation: fight under both Muhammad and Mahavir's standards.
3. Azamgarh Proclamation promised specific benefits to each social group — zamindars, merchants, artisans, soldiers, pundits, fakirs.
4. The ishtahars glorified pre-British Hindu-Muslim coexistence under the Mughal Empire.
5. British attempt to incite Hindus against Muslims in Bareilly (spending ₹50,000) — failed.
6. Rebel leaders issued orders to stop looting and maintain discipline to keep diverse groups together.

Q5. What steps did the British take to quell the uprising?

British suppression methods:
1. Martial law over all North India (May–June 1857).
2. Military officers and even ordinary Britons given power to try Indians — death as the only punishment.
3. Two-pronged military attack: from Calcutta (into North India) + from Punjab (to Delhi).
4. Delhi recaptured late September 1857 after heavy fighting.
5. Village-by-village reconquest of Gangetic plain.
6. Public executions (blown from guns, hanged) — circulated as images; punishment as performance of terror.
7. In UP, broke peasant-taluqdar unity by promising estates to loyal taluqdars.
8. Rebel landholders dispossessed; loyal ones rewarded.

✍️ Essay Answers (250–300 words)

Q6. Why was the revolt particularly widespread in Awadh?

Political: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was widely loved. His deposition and exile to Calcutta (1856) caused enormous grief — people followed him singing laments. Dissolution of the court left thousands (musicians, artisans, poets, officials) without livelihood.

Taluqdars: The Subsidiary Alliance (1801) had already weakened the Nawab. After annexation, the Summary Settlement of 1856 removed taluqdars — their share of villages fell from 67% to 38%. Some lost more than half. They joined Begum Hazrat Mahal to resist.

Peasants: Revenue demand rose 30–70%. The protective relationship with taluqdars was broken. Under British rule, there was no guarantee of relief in crop failure or hardship — collection was inflexible.

Sepoys: Awadh was the "nursery of the Bengal Army" — most Bengal Army sepoys were recruited from Awadh villages. Their families suffered the same hardships. When sepoys revolted, villagers joined instantly.

Conclusion: Awadh was unique because a chain of grievances linked prince, taluqdar, peasant, and sepoy — all saw British rule as destroying their world. This made resistance intense and long-lasting (until March 1858).

Q7. What did the rebels want? How did the vision of different social groups differ?

Common Vision: All rebels wanted to end British rule and restore the pre-British world. They condemned annexations, broken treaties, destruction of Indian industries and customs. The Azamgarh Proclamation and other ishtahars glorified Mughal-era Hindu-Muslim coexistence.

Group-specific visions:

Zamindars: Restoration of estates; reduced revenue; dignity in courts
Merchants: End of British trade monopoly on indigo, cloth, shipping
Artisans: Employment again — weavers, carpenters, shoemakers ruined by European imports
Sepoys: Respect, fair pay, protection of caste and religion
Peasants: Relief from oppressive revenue; return of taternalistic taluqdar protection
Pundits/Fakirs: Protection of Hindu and Muslim religions

Contradictions: Some wanted Mughal restoration; others showed glimpses of an egalitarian vision (attacking moneylenders, burning account books). These contradictions meant the rebellion had no unified post-British vision — a key reason for its eventual failure.

Q8. What do visual representations tell us about the revolt? How do historians analyse them?

What images tell us:
1. British paintings like Relief of Lucknow celebrated British heroism and reassured public at home.
2. In Memoriam showed helpless women/children; implied brutal rebels — aroused demand for revenge without showing gore.
3. Images of public executions (blown from guns, hanging) were meant to perform terror — punishment as spectacle to deter rebellion.
4. Cartoons (Clemency of Canning) show British public wanted vengeance, not mercy.
5. Indian nationalist images (Rani Lakshmi Bai as warrior) inspired anti-colonial pride.

How historians analyse:
Historians treat images as propaganda, not neutral records. They ask: Who made it? For whom? What emotions does it provoke? What is included/omitted? British images demonised rebels and justified repression. Indian images glorified resistance.

Importantly, images shaped as well as reflected sensibilities — they did not merely record events but constructed narratives of heroism, victimhood, and justice.

Q9. Compare one visual source and one text source — victor vs vanquished perspectives.

Visual (British) — "In Memoriam" (Paton, 1859):
This painting shows English women and children huddled helplessly. The rebels are invisible yet their violence is implied. It constructs the British as innocent victims and rebels as savage. This is the victor's perspective — it justifies brutal repression by emphasising British suffering. It provoked the British public to demand revenge and thus sanctioned violence against rebels.

Text (Rebel) — Arzi of Rebel Sepoys (Source 6):
The arzi presents the vanquished perspective. Sepoys remind the British of a century of loyal service. They explain they revolted only after cartridges with cow/pig fat were forced on them, and 84 of their fellow soldiers were imprisoned. They fought for two years only to protect their religion. This shows rebels as defenders of faith and tradition, not aggressors — a complete contrast to the British image.

Conclusion: Both sources are partial truths constructed for specific audiences. Together, they show how the same events were experienced and remembered very differently by those in power and those who resisted.

📌 In-Text / Source-Based Questions Answered

Source 1: How did Delhi Urdu Akhbar view the actions of the people?

The Delhi Urdu Akhbar (14 June 1857) was alarmed by the breakdown of ordinary life. It reported scarcity of vegetables (even pumpkin and brinjal unavailable), water-carriers stopping work, and neighbourhoods unable to earn. It feared disease and death would spread. The newspaper sympathised with the hardship of ordinary people and seemed to view the situation as a crisis — not necessarily celebrating the revolt but recording the suffering it caused to common people.

Source 2: What does the Sisten-tahsildar conversation suggest? Why did the tahsildar regard Sisten as a potential rebel?

The conversation suggests that plans for revolt were being communicated through informal networks and coded language. The tahsildar spoke confidently about "work in Awadh" (a veiled reference to rebellion) and said "we will succeed this time." He regarded Sisten as a potential rebel because Sisten was from Awadh (a known hotbed of unrest) and was dressed in Indian clothes, sitting cross-legged — suggesting Indian sympathies. The tahsildar himself was later identified as the principal rebel leader of Bijnor.

Source 4: What does Hanwant Singh's statement tell us about taluqdar attitudes?

Hanwant Singh (Raja of Kalakankar) reveals classic taluqdar grievances. Despite having saved a British officer's life, the British had taken away his ancestral lands. He felt betrayed. His statement — "the people of the land rose against you" — shows he saw it as a broad popular uprising. He marched to Lucknow to drive the British out. The "people of the land" referred to all locals — taluqdars, peasants, and soldiers — united by the experience of losing their land and dignity under British rule.

Source 5: What issues against British rule are highlighted in the Azamgarh Proclamation?

The Azamgarh Proclamation (25 August 1857) addressed every social group:
Zamindars: Exorbitant revenue, public auctions of estates, humiliation in courts.
Merchants: British monopoly on indigo, cloth, shipping; taxes and exploitation.
Public Servants: Low pay, no respect, all senior posts given to Englishmen.
Artisans: European imports ruined weaving, carpentry, shoemaking — reduced to beggary.
Pundits/Fakirs: Both Hindu and Muslim religions under attack from the British.
The proclamation promised all these groups their rights under the restored Indian government.

Source 6 (Arzi): Compare reasons in the arzi with those of the taluqdar (Source 4).

Sepoys (Arzi): Revolted primarily for religious reasons — to protect their faith from greased cartridges, bone-dust in flour, forced conversion. They emphasised a century of loyalty before British betrayed them.

Taluqdar (Hanwant Singh): Revolted for political and economic reasons — loss of ancestral lands, loss of dignity, British betrayal of those who helped them.

Common ground: Both felt betrayed by British despite having served/supported them. Both referred to "the people of the land" or religious communities rising together. The difference is in emphasis — sepoys focused on religion; taluqdars on land and power. Together, they show the revolt united economic, political, and religious grievances.

📝 WORKSHEET — Practice Questions

A. Fill in the Blanks Answers below

The Revolt of 1857 began on _____ May in _____. (10, Meerut)
The old Mughal emperor _____ gave nominal leadership to the revolt. (Bahadur Shah Zafar)
The Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on Awadh in _____. (1801)
The _____ Proclamation (25 August 1857) addressed every social group separately. (Azamgarh)
Awadh was called the _____ of the Bengal Army. (nursery)
Shah Mal mobilised villagers of pargana _____ in Uttar Pradesh. (Barout)
Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was also known as _____. (Danka Shah)
'In Memoriam' was painted by _____ in _____. (Joseph Noel Paton, 1859)
The term _____ means a storeroom where weapons are kept. (Bell of Arms)
'Khoob lari mardani...' was written by _____. (Subhadra Kumari Chauhan)

B. True or False

The sepoys alone revolted in 1857. False — ordinary people widely joined.
Bahadur Shah readily and eagerly accepted leadership. False — reluctant; had no choice.
The Azamgarh Proclamation appealed only to Muslims. False — addressed all groups.
Awadh was the nursery of the Bengal Army. True
British recaptured Delhi in late September 1857. True
Rani Lakshmi Bai volunteered to lead the revolt. False — forced by public pressure.
The purpose of chapatti distribution in 1857 is known clearly today. False — still unclear.
Nana Sahib escaped to Nepal after rebellion collapsed. True

C. Match the Following

Column A	Column B
Nana Sahib	Kanpur — successor to Peshwa Baji Rao II
Kunwar Singh	Arrah, Bihar — local zamindar
Birjis Qadr	Lucknow — son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
Shah Mal	Pargana Barout, UP — Jat cultivator leader
Lord Dalhousie	Annexed Awadh in 1856
Thomas Jones Barker	Painted 'Relief of Lucknow' (1859)
Lord Wellesley	Devised Subsidiary Alliance (1798)
Lord William Bentinck	Abolished sati (1829); introduced Western education

D. One-Line Answers

What was the immediate trigger of the Revolt of 1857?
Rumour that Enfield rifle cartridges were greased with fat of cows and pigs, violating Hindu and Muslim religious beliefs.
What is Subsidiary Alliance?
A system (1798, Wellesley) where Indian rulers accepted British troops in their territory and a Resident at court in exchange for protection — making them dependent on British.
Why did taluqdars oppose the Summary Settlement of 1856?
Their share of villages fell from 67% to 38%; many lost more than half their holdings. They were disarmed and their forts destroyed.
What did the painting 'In Memoriam' show?
Helpless English women and children huddled, seemingly waiting for a rebel attack; meant to provoke anger and demands for revenge in Britain.
Why do historians depend mainly on British accounts for 1857?
Most rebels were illiterate; British as victors silenced rebel voices; very few rebel proclamations or arzis survived.
What was the Azamgarh Proclamation?
A rebel document (25 August 1857) that is one of the main sources about what rebels wanted — it addressed every social group's grievances against British rule separately.

E. Very Short Note Questions (3–5 sentences each)

Firangi Raj and the End of a World — People of Awadh came to see British rule as the destruction of everything they valued. For the Nawab's supporters, it meant loss of court culture. For taluqdars, loss of land and power. For peasants, oppressive revenue. For sepoys, loss of religion. This chain of linked grievances made Awadh the heart of the revolt.
Role of Rumours — Rumours made sense in the context of real British policies that threatened Indian customs, religions, and land. Once started, no amount of official assurance could stop their spread. They gave people a common language to understand their fears and mobilised them to act together.
Performance of Terror — The British executed rebels publicly — blown from guns or hanged in rows — and circulated images of these executions through popular journals. Punishment was designed to be watched, not hidden. The aim was to instil fear among sepoys and the public, making rebellion seem futile.

Class 12 History | Theme 11: Rebels and the Raj | NCERT | For Educational Use Only

⚔️ REBELS AND THE RAJ

The Revolt of 1857 and Its Representations