THEME 7 · CLASS XII HISTORY
🏛️ An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara
Notes, Diagrams & Complete Q&A
c. 14th to 16th Century
Founded
1336 CE
Founders
Harihara & Bukka
Capital Today
Hampi (Karnataka)
Battle of Talikota
1565 CE
1 The Discovery of Hampi
- Vijayanagara = "City of Victory" — name of both the city and empire.
- After the city was sacked in 1565, people called it Hampi (from local goddess Pampadevi).
- Colonel Colin Mackenzie (1800): Engineer of the East India Company; drew the first survey map; got information from priests of the Virupaksha temple.
- From 1856: Photographers recorded monuments.
- From 1836: Epigraphists collected inscriptions from temples.
- Historians combined inscriptions, foreign travellers' accounts, and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil & Sanskrit to reconstruct history.
💡 Memory Tip — Mackenzie
Mackenzie → Mapped, Memories of priests → First Man to study Hampi (1800)
Fig 1: Political relationships of the Vijayanagara Empire
2 Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans
- Founded by brothers Harihara and Bukka (1336) — called Karnataka Samrajyamu by contemporaries.
- Empire stretched from river Krishna (north) to the extreme south of the peninsula.
- Competed with Deccan Sultans and Gajapati rulers of Orissa for river valleys and overseas trade.
👑 Dynasties of Vijayanagara
| Dynasty | Period | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Sangama | 1336–1485 | Founded the empire; built Hiriya canal |
| Saluva | 1485–1503 | Military commanders who took control |
| Tuluva | 1503–1542 | Krishnadeva Raya — greatest ruler |
| Aravidu | 1542–17th C | Ruled after 1565 from Penukonda & Chandragiri |
⭐ Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529)
- Most famous ruler; belonged to Tuluva dynasty.
- Conquered Raichur doab (1512), subdued Orissa (1514), defeated Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
- Built fine temples; added gopurams to major South Indian temples.
- Founded township Nagalapuram (after his mother).
- Wrote Amuktamalyada (on statecraft, in Telugu).
⚔️ The Battle of Talikota (1565)
- Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda) allied against Vijayanagara.
- Chief minister Rama Raya led the army and was defeated.
- City was sacked and abandoned within a few years.
🏇 Amara-Nayaka System
- Major political innovation — likely derived from the iqta system of Delhi Sultanate.
- Nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the Raya.
- They collected taxes, maintained horses & elephants for the king's army, and sent annual tribute.
- Kings transferred nayakas from place to place to control them.
- In the 17th century many nayakas became independent → hastened empire's collapse.
Fig 2: Three major zones of Vijayanagara city (simplified)
3 The Capital and its Environs
💧 Water Resources
- City located in a natural basin formed by river Tungabhadra.
- Surrounded by stunning granite hills.
- Embankments built on streams → reservoirs. Most important: Kamalapuram tank (early 15th century).
- Hiriya canal drew water from the Tungabhadra — irrigated the valley between Sacred Centre and Urban Core. Built by Sangama dynasty.
🏰 Fortifications
- Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq mentioned 7 lines of forts.
- Walls enclosed not just the city but also agricultural land and forests.
- Construction: wedge-shaped stone blocks — no mortar used.
- This protected the agricultural belt so defenders could survive long sieges.
- Gateways showed Indo-Islamic architecture (arches, domes) introduced by Turkish Sultans.
🏘️ Urban Core
- Chinese porcelain found in north-eastern corner → area of rich traders and Muslim quarter.
- Ordinary people's houses were thatched (as described by Portuguese traveller Barbosa).
- Numerous shrines and small temples dotted throughout.
4 The Royal Centre
- Located in the south-western part; had 60+ temples and ~30 palace complexes.
🏛️ Mahanavami Dibba
Massive platform (11,000 sq ft base, 40 ft high) for royal ceremonies during the 10-day autumn festival (Navaratri/Dussehra). Covered in relief carvings.
🪷 Lotus Mahal
Beautiful building with Indo-Islamic arches and 9 towers. Possibly a council chamber. Named by British travellers in the 19th century.
🐘 Elephant Stables
Row of chambers near Lotus Mahal, showing strong Indo-Islamic style (domes, arches). Likely housed royal elephants.
🛕 Hazara Rama Temple
Meant for the king and his family. Walls sculpted with scenes from the Ramayana.
5 The Sacred Centre
- Located at the rocky northern end on the banks of the Tungabhadra.
- Local traditions linked hills to the Ramayana (monkey kingdom of Vali & Sugriva).
- Rulers claimed to rule on behalf of god Virupaksha — signed royal orders as "Shri Virupaksha".
- Used title "Hindu Suratrana" (Sanskritised form of Arabic "Sultan").
🏯 Gopurams and Mandapas
- Raya Gopurams = massive royal gateways that dwarfed the central shrines — symbol of imperial power.
- Mandapas = pillared halls/pavilions within temple complexes.
- Halls used for music, dance, drama, divine marriages, and deity swings.
Key Temples
| Temple | Key Feature |
|---|---|
| Virupaksha | Oldest; enlarged by Krishnadeva Raya; kalyana mandapa (divine wedding hall) |
| Vitthala | Deity = form of Vishnu from Maharashtra; famous stone chariot shrine; chariot streets lined with bazaars |
6 Important Dates — Quick Revision
1336
Vijayanagara Empire founded by Harihara and Bukka
1485
Sangama dynasty ended; Saluvas took over
1498
Portuguese arrived on the west coast
1509–1529
Krishnadeva Raya's reign — golden age
1565
Battle of Talikota; city sacked and abandoned
1800
Colin Mackenzie rediscovers Hampi
1986
Hampi declared UNESCO World Heritage Site
7 Key Terms to Remember
Raya
Title used by Vijayanagara rulers
Nayaka
Military chiefs who governed territories for the king
Amara-Nayaka
Military commander given territory; derived from Delhi Sultanate's iqta system
Gopuram
Towering temple gateway; symbol of royal power
Mandapa
Pillared pavilion/hall inside temple complex
Indo-Islamic
Architecture blending local and Turkish/Islamic styles (arches, domes)
Kudirai Chettis
Local horse-merchant communities
Yavana
Sanskrit word for foreigners from the north-west (Greeks etc.)
Gajapati
"Lord of Elephants" — ruling lineage of Orissa
Amuktamalyada
Work on statecraft written by Krishnadeva Raya in Telugu
📝 Exercise Q&A (Short Answers — 100–150 words each)
Q1
What methods were used to study the ruins of Hampi? How did they complement the priests' information?
Methods used: (i) Colin Mackenzie (1800) prepared the first survey map. (ii) From 1856, photographs of monuments were taken. (iii) From 1836, inscriptions were collected by epigraphists. (iv) Accounts of foreign travellers (Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Domingo Paes, etc.) were studied. (v) Literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit was analysed. (vi) In the 1980s, extensive archaeological surveys using modern techniques were conducted.
Complementing priests' information: Priests only remembered oral traditions and religious legends. Archaeological finds, inscriptions, and travellers' accounts provided dates, political history, architectural details, and economic information that oral memory alone could not preserve. Together, they gave a more complete picture.
Complementing priests' information: Priests only remembered oral traditions and religious legends. Archaeological finds, inscriptions, and travellers' accounts provided dates, political history, architectural details, and economic information that oral memory alone could not preserve. Together, they gave a more complete picture.
Q2
How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
Vijayanagara is in one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, so elaborate water management was essential:
• The city lay in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River.
• Embankments were built along streams flowing from granite hills to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
• The most important tank — Kamalapuram tank — was built in the early 15th century. Water from it irrigated nearby fields and was channelled to the royal centre.
• The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra, irrigating the valley between the sacred centre and urban core. It was built by the Sangama dynasty.
• The city lay in a natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River.
• Embankments were built along streams flowing from granite hills to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
• The most important tank — Kamalapuram tank — was built in the early 15th century. Water from it irrigated nearby fields and was channelled to the royal centre.
• The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra, irrigating the valley between the sacred centre and urban core. It was built by the Sangama dynasty.
Q3
What were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area?
Advantages:
• During long sieges (which could last months or years), the defenders could grow their own food and would not be starved into submission.
• The city could sustain itself even when completely cut off, making it far more defensible than cities relying solely on stored grain.
Disadvantages:
• Enclosing agricultural tracts required much longer and more expensive fortification walls.
• It required more guards and resources to protect a larger perimeter.
• Construction was technically more challenging as it had to cover uneven terrain including hills and valleys.
• During long sieges (which could last months or years), the defenders could grow their own food and would not be starved into submission.
• The city could sustain itself even when completely cut off, making it far more defensible than cities relying solely on stored grain.
Disadvantages:
• Enclosing agricultural tracts required much longer and more expensive fortification walls.
• It required more guards and resources to protect a larger perimeter.
• Construction was technically more challenging as it had to cover uneven terrain including hills and valleys.
Q4
What was the significance of the rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba?
The Mahanavami Dibba was associated with the ten-day festival known as Mahanavami (Navaratri/Dussehra). It was politically and symbolically very significant:
• It was a public display of royal power and prestige — the king appeared before the people and nayakas.
• Rituals included worship of the state horse and image, sacrifice of buffaloes, dances, wrestling, processions of elephants, horses, chariots and soldiers.
• On the last day, the king inspected his army and the nayakas' armies — demonstrating military strength.
• Nayakas brought tribute and gifts, reinforcing their loyalty and subordination to the king.
• It thus served as an annual ceremony for renewing political allegiances.
• It was a public display of royal power and prestige — the king appeared before the people and nayakas.
• Rituals included worship of the state horse and image, sacrifice of buffaloes, dances, wrestling, processions of elephants, horses, chariots and soldiers.
• On the last day, the king inspected his army and the nayakas' armies — demonstrating military strength.
• Nayakas brought tribute and gifts, reinforcing their loyalty and subordination to the king.
• It thus served as an annual ceremony for renewing political allegiances.
📝 Short Essays (250–300 words each)
Q6
Discuss whether "royal centre" is an appropriate description for that part of the city.
The term "royal centre" is only partially appropriate. While it is true that the area contained the king's residence, audience hall, and Mahanavami Dibba — all closely associated with royal functions — the area was far more diverse than the name suggests.
Firstly, the royal centre contained over 60 temples, making it also a major sacred zone. The patronage of temples was essential for rulers to legitimise their authority through association with deities, so these temples were politically important but not strictly "royal" buildings.
Secondly, the ~30 buildings identified as palaces were built of perishable materials for the superstructure (unlike temples, which were entirely masonry). No building has yielded definitive proof of being a royal residence. The so-called "king's palace" is the largest enclosure but remains unconfirmed.
Thirdly, structures like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables may have served administrative or military functions, not purely royal/residential ones. Their strong Indo-Islamic architectural style also suggests a deliberate imperial cultural statement, blending traditions.
Therefore, while "royal centre" captures the political importance of the area, it underplays its religious, administrative, and ceremonial complexity. A better name might be "Imperial Centre" to reflect the full range of functions it served.
Firstly, the royal centre contained over 60 temples, making it also a major sacred zone. The patronage of temples was essential for rulers to legitimise their authority through association with deities, so these temples were politically important but not strictly "royal" buildings.
Secondly, the ~30 buildings identified as palaces were built of perishable materials for the superstructure (unlike temples, which were entirely masonry). No building has yielded definitive proof of being a royal residence. The so-called "king's palace" is the largest enclosure but remains unconfirmed.
Thirdly, structures like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables may have served administrative or military functions, not purely royal/residential ones. Their strong Indo-Islamic architectural style also suggests a deliberate imperial cultural statement, blending traditions.
Therefore, while "royal centre" captures the political importance of the area, it underplays its religious, administrative, and ceremonial complexity. A better name might be "Imperial Centre" to reflect the full range of functions it served.
Q7
What does the architecture of the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers?
The Lotus Mahal and elephant stables reveal several important things about the rulers of Vijayanagara:
1. Cultural openness and synthesis: Both buildings display a distinct Indo-Islamic style — with pointed arches, domes, and vaulted ceilings — blended with South Indian traditions. This shows rulers were willing to adopt architectural ideas from the very Deccan Sultanates they competed with, creating a unique composite style.
2. Wealth and power: The scale and craftsmanship of these structures reflect immense economic resources. The ability to build such elaborate structures demonstrated royal prestige and command over skilled labour, techniques, and materials.
3. Pragmatism: Rulers chose the most effective building techniques regardless of their cultural origin, showing they were pragmatic rather than rigid in their cultural policies.
4. The Lotus Mahal's possible use as a council chamber (suggested by Mackenzie's map) shows that royal administration required dedicated, impressive spaces for governance — reflecting the sophisticated nature of Vijayanagara's political system.
5. The elephant stables reflect the importance of war elephants in medieval armies. Providing grand housing for elephants was itself a symbol of military power and royal wealth.
1. Cultural openness and synthesis: Both buildings display a distinct Indo-Islamic style — with pointed arches, domes, and vaulted ceilings — blended with South Indian traditions. This shows rulers were willing to adopt architectural ideas from the very Deccan Sultanates they competed with, creating a unique composite style.
2. Wealth and power: The scale and craftsmanship of these structures reflect immense economic resources. The ability to build such elaborate structures demonstrated royal prestige and command over skilled labour, techniques, and materials.
3. Pragmatism: Rulers chose the most effective building techniques regardless of their cultural origin, showing they were pragmatic rather than rigid in their cultural policies.
4. The Lotus Mahal's possible use as a council chamber (suggested by Mackenzie's map) shows that royal administration required dedicated, impressive spaces for governance — reflecting the sophisticated nature of Vijayanagara's political system.
5. The elephant stables reflect the importance of war elephants in medieval armies. Providing grand housing for elephants was itself a symbol of military power and royal wealth.
Q8
What architectural traditions inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform them?
The architects of Vijayanagara drew on multiple traditions and creatively transformed them:
Traditions inherited:
• Dravidian temple architecture of the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas — elaborate temple complexes, carved pillars, and mandapas. Famous examples include the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava at Belur.
• Indo-Islamic architecture introduced by the Deccan Sultanates — pointed arches, domes, vaulted ceilings. Vijayanagara rulers borrowed these ideas from neighbouring kingdoms they competed with.
How they transformed them:
• They built raya gopurams — gateways of immense scale that dwarfed even the central shrines, turning them into political statements of imperial authority.
• They added long, pillared corridors around shrines and multiplied mandapas for different ritual purposes (music, divine marriages, swings).
• The chariot streets extending from gopurams — lined with pillared bazaars — were a new addition linking commerce and worship.
• In secular buildings like the Lotus Mahal, they combined lotus-shaped towers (Hindu) with pointed arches (Islamic) into a unique hybrid style that became distinctly Vijayanagaran.
Traditions inherited:
• Dravidian temple architecture of the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas — elaborate temple complexes, carved pillars, and mandapas. Famous examples include the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava at Belur.
• Indo-Islamic architecture introduced by the Deccan Sultanates — pointed arches, domes, vaulted ceilings. Vijayanagara rulers borrowed these ideas from neighbouring kingdoms they competed with.
How they transformed them:
• They built raya gopurams — gateways of immense scale that dwarfed even the central shrines, turning them into political statements of imperial authority.
• They added long, pillared corridors around shrines and multiplied mandapas for different ritual purposes (music, divine marriages, swings).
• The chariot streets extending from gopurams — lined with pillared bazaars — were a new addition linking commerce and worship.
• In secular buildings like the Lotus Mahal, they combined lotus-shaped towers (Hindu) with pointed arches (Islamic) into a unique hybrid style that became distinctly Vijayanagaran.
Q9
What impression of ordinary people's lives can you get from the descriptions in the chapter?
The chapter gives us several glimpses into the lives of ordinary people in Vijayanagara:
Housing: According to Portuguese traveller Barbosa, ordinary people lived in thatched houses, though they were well-built and arranged by occupation along long streets with open spaces.
Vibrant markets: The bazaars were extraordinarily well-stocked. Paes described a broad, beautiful street where merchants sold rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls, cloths, and everyday items. Evening fairs sold horses, fruits, and garden produce. Fernao Nuniz noted markets overflowing with fruits and meat — mutton, pork, venison, birds, and even unusual items like rats and lizards.
Diverse community: The city had Muslim residents with their own mosques, rich traders who could afford Chinese porcelain, craftspeople, merchants, and farmers — all living in distinct quarters arranged by occupation.
Religious life: Numerous shrines and small temples dotted the area, suggesting ordinary people had active religious lives and supported a variety of cults.
Limitations: We know little about what ordinary workers who built the massive temples and palaces thought, what wages they received, and whether they had access to royal or sacred spaces. The historical record is largely silent on the poor.
Housing: According to Portuguese traveller Barbosa, ordinary people lived in thatched houses, though they were well-built and arranged by occupation along long streets with open spaces.
Vibrant markets: The bazaars were extraordinarily well-stocked. Paes described a broad, beautiful street where merchants sold rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls, cloths, and everyday items. Evening fairs sold horses, fruits, and garden produce. Fernao Nuniz noted markets overflowing with fruits and meat — mutton, pork, venison, birds, and even unusual items like rats and lizards.
Diverse community: The city had Muslim residents with their own mosques, rich traders who could afford Chinese porcelain, craftspeople, merchants, and farmers — all living in distinct quarters arranged by occupation.
Religious life: Numerous shrines and small temples dotted the area, suggesting ordinary people had active religious lives and supported a variety of cults.
Limitations: We know little about what ordinary workers who built the massive temples and palaces thought, what wages they received, and whether they had access to royal or sacred spaces. The historical record is largely silent on the poor.
📌 Questions From Within the Chapter (Answered)
In-text
Why do you think the king was interested in encouraging trade? Which groups benefited?
The king encouraged trade because: (i) Horses from Arabia and Central Asia were essential for warfare — trade ensured military strength. (ii) Trade generated revenue from taxes and customs that funded the state. (iii) Luxury goods (gems, spices, textiles) attracted foreign merchants and enhanced the city's status.
Beneficiaries: Merchants (especially kudirai chettis/horse merchants), the king/state (taxes and horses), craftspeople, and common people (affordable goods in the bazaar).
Beneficiaries: Merchants (especially kudirai chettis/horse merchants), the king/state (taxes and horses), craftspeople, and common people (affordable goods in the bazaar).
In-text
How has the artist portrayed Mackenzie and his indigenous informers? (Fig 7.2)
Mackenzie is portrayed as the central, dominant figure in bright red military uniform — tall and commanding. His Indian assistants (peon Kistnaji, Jaina pandit, Telugu Brahmana) are shown smaller, in the background, in more subdued clothing. This reflects the colonial hierarchy: the British officer as the active discoverer and the Indians as mere supporting informants, despite their crucial role in providing local knowledge. The painting reinforces the colonial idea of the British "bringing" India's history to light.
In-text
Why were agricultural tracts incorporated within the fortified area?
Medieval sieges aimed to starve defenders into surrender. Rather than just storing grain in granaries (the usual practice), the rulers of Vijayanagara protected the entire agricultural belt within the walls. This meant the city could produce its own food during a siege that lasted months or even years, making it extremely difficult to defeat through starvation.
In-text
Why did the nayakas continue with building traditions of the rulers of Vijayanagara?
The nayakas continued these traditions because: (i) They wanted to legitimise their authority by associating themselves with the glorious Vijayanagara Empire. (ii) Temple-building was a way to win the support of local communities and religious institutions. (iii) The architectural style had become a symbol of power and prestige in the region, which they wanted to project. (iv) The same craftsmen and building techniques were available, making continuity natural.
🌍
UNESCO Heritage: Hampi was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986. It was recognised as a site of national importance in 1976. The large-scale documentation project began in the early 1980s and involved scholars from around the world over nearly 20 years.
Class XII History · Theme 7 · Vijayanagara Notes & Worksheet · NCERT Rationalised 2023-24