Kinship, Caste and Class — Class 12 History Notes

Kinship, Caste and Class

Early Societies · Theme 3 · c. 600 BCE – 600 CE · Class 12 NCERT History

📚 Study Notes + Visual Diagrams + All Exercise Answers + Worksheet

📖 Key Terms & Concepts

Patriliny Tracing descent father → son → grandson. Sons inherit father's resources/throne.

Matriliny Descent traced through the mother.

Metronymic A name derived from the mother's name (e.g., Gotami-puta = son of Gotami).

Kula / Jnati / Vamsha Sanskrit for family / larger kinfolk / lineage.

Exogamy Marrying outside one's kin group. Recommended in Brahmanical texts.

Endogamy Marrying within one's kin group. Practised in south India (e.g., Satavahanas).

Polygyny A man having several wives.

Polyandry A woman having several husbands (e.g., Draupadi + 5 Pandavas).

Kanyadana Gift of a daughter in marriage — considered an important religious duty of the father.

Gotra Brahmanical kinship group named after a Vedic seer. Rules: (1) woman gives up father's gotra on marriage; (2) members of same gotra cannot marry.

Varna Fourfold classification: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Based on birth.

Jati Occupational/social sub-group based on birth. Unlimited in number — more flexible than varna.

Nishada Forest-dwelling hunting community; example of those outside the varna system.

Mlechchha Term for 'barbarians' or outsiders — those outside the Brahmanical social order.

Chandala Placed at the very bottom of social hierarchy; 'untouchable'; handled corpses and dead animals.

Stridhana Literally 'woman's wealth' — gifts received at marriage; inheritable by her children.

Manusmriti Most important Dharmashastra, c. 200 BCE–200 CE. Prescribed varna duties and social rules.

Purusha Sukta Rigvedic hymn used by Brahmanas to justify varna order as divinely ordained.

Didactic Meant for instruction. Didactic sections of Mahabharata contain social norms/prescriptions.

Itihasa Literally "thus it was." The Mahabharata is described as itihasa.

Sutas Charioteer-bards who originally composed the Mahabharata orally.

Mahasammata Buddhist concept — "the great elect"; king chosen by people; taxes = payment for service.

📝 Chapter Notes

1. The Mahabharata and Its Critical Edition

Mahabharata: ~100,000 verses; composed over ~1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards).
Central story: war between Kauravas and Pandavas (cousins in the Kuru lineage).
Also contains sections laying down norms of social behaviour for various groups.

Mahabharata — Phases of Composition

Oral Stage (pre-500 BCE) Charioteer-bards (sutas) composed poems celebrating Kshatriya victories orally

c. 500 BCE Brahmanas took over; began writing it down as chiefdoms became kingdoms. <10,000 verses

c. 200 BCE–200 CE Worship of Vishnu grew; Krishna identified with Vishnu

c. 200–400 CE Large didactic sections (like Manusmriti) added → grows to ~100,000 verses

1919–1966 Critical Edition by V.S. Sukthankar; 13,000+ pages; 47 years

Present Versions in many Indian languages; retold in sculpture, dance, drama

Critical Edition key findings: (1) Common core elements across subcontinent (Kashmir to Tamil Nadu). (2) Enormous regional variations — over half the 13,000 pages document variations.

2. Kinship and Marriage

Brahmanical Ideal vs. Satavahana Practice

📜 Brahmanical Prescription

Patriliny — father → son succession
Exogamy — marry outside the gotra
Woman gives up father's gotra on marriage
Same gotra = cannot marry
Women: no claim to household property
8 forms of marriage (first 4 "good")

⚠️ Satavahana Practice (Exception)

Succession: patrilineal
Endogamy — some married within same gotra
Women retained father's gotra after marriage
Used metronymics (names from mothers)
E.g., Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani
Shows Brahmanical norms were NOT universal

Key Marriage-Related Facts

Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras compiled from c. 500 BCE — social norms for Brahmanas (and everyone else).
Most important: Manusmriti (c. 200 BCE–200 CE).
Daughters: no claim to household resources. Kanyadana (gift of daughter) = religious duty of father.
Eight forms of marriage: first four "good"; last four condemned (probably practised by those rejecting Brahmanical norms).
Satavahanas were polygynous (multiple wives).

3. The Varna System

The Fourfold Varna Hierarchy

BRAHMANA Study/teach Vedas, perform sacrifices, give/receive gifts | Mouth of Purusha

KSHATRIYA Warfare, protect people, administer justice | Arms of Purusha

VAISHYA Agriculture, pastoralism, trade | Thighs of Purusha

SHUDRA Serve the three higher varnas only | Feet of Purusha

CHANDALA ("Untouchable") — outside the system Handle corpses, dead animals; live outside villages; sound clapper in streets

Source: Purusha Sukta (Rigveda) — Brahmanas cited this as divine justification for the varna order

Brahmanical Enforcement Strategies

Strategy 1: Claim divine origin — cite Purusha Sukta ("Brahmana was his mouth…").
Strategy 2: Advise kings to enforce varna norms within their kingdoms.
Strategy 3: Persuade people that status was determined by birth.
Stories in the Mahabharata (like Ekalavya) reinforced these prescriptions.

Non-Kshatriya Kings — Reality vs. Ideal

Dynasty	Actual Origin	How Positioned
Mauryas	Debated — Buddhists say Kshatriya; Brahmanical texts say "low origin"	Largest empire in subcontinent's history
Shungas/Kanvas	Brahmanas	Successors to Mauryas — not Kshatriyas at all
Shakas	Central Asian — labelled mlechchhas	Rudradaman rebuilt Sudarshana lake; adopted Sanskritic traditions
Satavahanas	Claimed Brahmana status	Kings (should have been Kshatriya) — contradictory claims

Key Stories and Their Significance

🏹 Ekalavya and Drona (Adi Parvan)

Nishada Ekalavya self-taught archery using a clay image of Drona. When discovered, Drona demanded Ekalavya's right thumb as his fee (guru dakshina) to protect Arjuna's superiority.
Message to nishadas: Accept social limitations; don't compete with higher varnas.
Message to Kshatriyas: Brahmanical teachers protect elite privilege.

🌿 Hidimba and Bhima (Adi Parvan)

Rakshasa woman Hidimba fell in love with Bhima; she proposed to him; they had a son Ghatotkacha.
Non-Brahmanical practices: Woman proposes; inter-community marriage; temporary rather than permanent union. Some historians: "rakshasa" = people with non-Brahmanical practices.

🪔 Matanga Jataka (Pali Buddhist text)

Bodhisatta born as chandala Matanga. Attains spiritual powers; his son feeds Brahmanas daily. Matanga challenges: "Those proud of birth and ignorant don't deserve gifts — those free from vices are worthy."
Message: Birth does not determine worth. Challenges the Brahmanical hierarchy from below.

4. Beyond Birth: Resources and Status

Gendered Access to Property

Draupadi episode: Yudhisthira staked — gold, elephants, chariots, slaves, army, kingdom, brothers, himself — and finally Draupadi. Lost all. Raises question: could a wife be treated as property?
Manusmriti: Paternal estate divided equally among sons. Women could NOT claim a share.
Stridhana: Gifts at marriage = woman's own wealth; children can inherit it; husband has no claim.
But: Manusmriti warned women against hoarding property without husband's permission.

Ways to Acquire Wealth (Manusmriti)

MEN (7 ways)
Inheritance · Finding · Purchase · Conquest · Investment · Work · Gifts from good people

WOMEN (6 ways)
Marriage gifts · Bridal procession gifts · Token of affection · From brother/mother/father · Subsequent gifts · Husband's gifts

Women's means of acquisition were entirely dependent on male relationships — no independent earning except through craft/labour (not listed here)

Buddhist Critique of Varna (Majjhima Nikaya)

💬 The Wealthy Shudra Argument

King Avantiputta lists Brahmanical claims (Brahmanas are highest, fairest, purest). Kachchana (Buddha's disciple) asks: "If a Shudra had wealth, would not even Brahmanas and Kshatriyas serve him politely?" The king admits yes — Kachchana concludes: "Are not the four varnas exactly the same?"
Key insight: In practice, WEALTH overrides birth. The Buddhist view: social differences are real but not natural or fixed.

5. Buddhist Explanation: Social Contract

Buddhist Sutta Pitaka: originally, humans lived in peace, taking only what they needed.
Greed and deceit caused deterioration → people chose a leader (mahasammata = the great elect).
Taxes = payment for services rendered by the king — NOT divine right.
Key implication: If humans created the system → humans can also CHANGE it. Unlike the Brahmanical view (divine, fixed, eternal).

6. Handling Texts: Historians and the Mahabharata

What Historians Consider When Analysing Texts

Element	Why It Matters
Language	Prakrit/Pali/Tamil = ordinary people; Sanskrit = priests/elites
Kind of text	Mantras (ritual specialists) vs. stories (widely read/heard)
Author	Whose perspective shaped the text?
Audience	Who was it written for?
Date/Place	Historical context of composition
Content	Narrative (stories) vs. Didactic (social norms)

Mahabharata's Sanskrit = simpler than Vedas or prashastis → probably widely understood.
The text is an itihasa — "thus it was" — roughly "history." Was there a real war? Uncertain.
B.B. Lal excavated Hastinapura (Meerut, UP), 1951–52. Phase 2: mud/mud-brick walls. Phase 3: burnt bricks, drains, ring-wells. Lal's finds less grand than epic's description → urban description may have been added later.

Draupadi's Polyandry — Multiple Explanations

Three explanations given in the text: (1) Kunti's command. (2) Pandavas are incarnations of Indra, Draupadi destined for them. (3) She prayed five times for a husband in a past life.
Multiple explanations = authors were uneasy with polyandry; it was falling into disfavour.
Polyandry still practised in Himalayan regions; may have been linked to shortage of women in wartime.

7. A Dynamic Text

Versions of the Mahabharata written in many Indian languages over centuries.
Episodes depicted in sculpture, painting, dance, drama — each retelling adapts creatively.
Mahashweta Devi — "Kunti O Nishadi": Retells the house-of-lac episode from the nishada woman's perspective. Shows 6 innocent lives lost to save Pandavas. Highlights exploitation of marginalised groups silenced in the original Sanskrit text.

📌 Never Forget These Key Facts

Mahabharata: ~100,000 verses; c. 500 BCE–400 CE; attributed to Vyasa
Critical Edition: 1919–66 by V.S. Sukthankar; 13,000+ pages; 47 years
Satavahanas: used metronymics; retained father's gotra; practised endogamy — violating Brahmanical rules
Purusha Sukta = divine justification for varna | Mahasammata = Buddhist alternative (elected king)
Chandalas: must live outside village; sound clapper (Fa Xian, c. 5th century CE)
Stridhana = woman's marriage gifts; inheritable by children; husband has no claim
B.B. Lal excavated Hastinapura in 1951–52
Mahabharata is an itihasa — "thus it was"; original composers = sutas
Mahashweta Devi — "Kunti O Nishadi" — retold from nishada woman's perspective

🔍 Answers: In-Text (Discuss) Questions

Implications of the Rigveda marriage mantra for bride and groom (Source 1)

FOR THE BRIDE: She is "freed" from her father's house and "bound firmly" to her husband's. Her purpose = produce "fine sons." She is transferred from one male authority to another; loses original identity. FOR THE GROOM: He gains a wife and future heirs; no restriction placed on him. Conclusion: Implications are very different — deeply asymmetrical. The mantra reveals a patriarchal society where women are objects of exchange, valued for producing sons.

Criteria for becoming king (Source 2 — Adi Parvan)

Criteria mentioned: (1) Birth in the ruling family (patrimony). (2) Physical ability — Dhritarashtra lost throne because of blindness. (3) Capability/virtue — citizens preferred Pandavas as "more capable and virtuous." Birth was very important — the entire dispute is about birthright. Unjust: Denying Dhritarashtra due to blindness (not his fault) seems unjust; excluding women from succession entirely is unjust.

Eight forms of marriage — who made the decision? (Source 3)

First: Father of the bride decides (invites a Vedic scholar). Fourth: Father decides (gives daughter to bridegroom). Fifth: Bridegroom decides (pays wealth to kinsmen and bride). Sixth: The bride has some agency — a "voluntary union based on desire." Overall: In most "good" forms, the father of the bride decides. The bride has real agency only in the condemned sixth form. The bride's wishes are largely irrelevant in the approved forms.

How many Gotami-putas and Vasithi-putas? (Source 4)

Gotami-putas: 3 (Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani; Gotami-puta sami-Siri-Yana-Satakani; Gotami-puta Siri-Vijaya-Satakani). Vasithi/Vasathi-putas: 2 (Vasithi-puta Siri-Pulumayi; Vasathi-puta Chatarapana-Satakani). This confirms that Satavahana kings regularly used metronymics — names from mothers — even though succession was patrilineal.

Does Gandhari's advice show how mothers were viewed in early Indian societies? (Source 5)

Yes and No. Gandhari's wise, thoughtful advice (urging peace, self-control) shows mothers were respected as moral voices. However, Duryodhana completely ignored her. This shows that while mothers could counsel, they lacked real political authority to override male decisions. The episode reflects a society where women were morally respected but politically powerless.

Why did Brahmanas quote the Purusha Sukta frequently? (Source 6)

To justify their social supremacy by claiming the varna order was divinely created — not a human invention. By saying Brahmanas came from Purusha's mouth (highest), Kshatriyas from arms, etc., they argued the hierarchy was a cosmic/sacred fact, not something humans could challenge or change. This made their privileged position appear natural and inevitable.

Message of Ekalavya story to nishadas and Kshatriyas (Source 7)

To nishadas: Accept your low status; do not aspire to skills reserved for higher varnas. Even if you develop abilities independently, you will be denied recognition. To Kshatriyas: Brahmanical teachers will protect your superiority. Birth determines access to education. Was Drona following Dharmasutras? Not fully — the texts prescribed generous teaching. By refusing Ekalavya and demanding his thumb, Drona protected elite privilege at the expense of dharma.

Were silk weavers following their prescribed occupation? (Source 8)

NO. The inscription shows guild members had multiple occupations — music, biography writing, astronomy, even fighting in battles. The Shastras would not have sanctioned all these for a single jati. Also, building a temple for the sun god required wealth earned through craft — accumulation of wealth beyond what the Shastras strictly prescribed. This shows the wide gap between Brahmanical prescription and actual social practice.

Non-Brahmanical practices in the Hidimba story (Source 9)

(1) A woman (rakshasa) proposing to a man — against norms. (2) Inter-community marriage — rakshasa and Kshatriya. (3) Woman sets conditions for the marriage. (4) Son born of mixed union joins the Pandava clan. (5) The union is temporary — the couple eventually separates. All of these deviate from Brahmanical ideals of arranged marriage, exogamy, and permanence.

Does Draupadi's staking suggest wives were property of husbands? (Source 11)

The episode suggests this — a husband could stake his wife like property. However, the text itself raises two contradictory views (he had the right vs. an unfree man cannot stake another). The matter remained unresolved, and Dhritarashtra ultimately restored everyone's freedom. The text was wrestling with the ethics — even within the epic, treating a wife as property was considered problematic.

Buddhist Majjhima Nikaya: ideas from Brahmanical tradition? What explains social difference? (Source 13)

Brahmanical ideas in Avantiputta's statement: Brahmanas are highest, fairest, purest; born of Brahma's mouth — derived directly from the Purusha Sukta. What explains social difference per this text: Kachchana's argument shows WEALTH overrides birth — a wealthy Shudra can command even Brahmanas. The Buddhist view: social differences are created by human economic realities (wealth), not by divine ordinance.

✏️ Exercise Answers (100–150 words each)

Why was patriliny important for elite families?

Inheritance: Under patriliny, sons claim fathers' resources (including thrones) — prevents succession disputes. Legitimacy: Kings needed unbroken patrilineal descent to justify their right to rule. Political continuity: Recognised hereditary system prevents constant warfare over succession. Property: Wealth (land, cattle, treasury) passed through the male line kept resources within the lineage. Purity: Brahmanical concern with gotra and lineage purity required controlling marriage — reinforced by rules like same-gotra ban. The Mahabharata's central conflict itself revolves around a patrilineal dispute — showing how crucial patriliny was to elite identity.

Were kings invariably Kshatriyas?

No. The ideal said only Kshatriyas should be kings. In practice: Mauryas — origin debated (Kshatriya per Buddhists; "low origin" per Brahmanical texts). Shungas and Kanvas — were actually Brahmanas. Shakas — Central Asians, labelled mlechchhas, yet ruled effectively and adopted Sanskritic traditions. Satavahanas — claimed Brahmana status yet acted as kings. In reality, political power was open to anyone who could muster support and resources. Birth as a Kshatriya was the ideal, not the requirement.

Compare dharma/norms in stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.

Drona: Upholds hierarchical dharma — refuses to teach nishada Ekalavya; protects Arjuna's supremacy; demands thumb as fee. Dharma here serves elite interests and enforces social barriers. Hidimba: Follows non-Brahmanical dharma — proposes to Bhima, negotiates her own marriage terms, accepts a temporary union. Dharma based on love and personal choice. Matanga: Follows a dharma of spiritual merit: "those free from vices are worthy, not those proud of birth." Challenges the birth-based hierarchy. Contrast: Drona's dharma reinforces Brahmanical hierarchy; Hidimba's and Matanga's represent alternative, non-Brahmanical values.

Buddhist social contract vs. Brahmanical Purusha Sukta view.

Brahmanical (Purusha Sukta): Varna order divinely created — all four varnas from Purusha's body. Status = birth. Hierarchy eternal and unchangeable. King rules by divine right. Buddhist (Sutta Pitaka): Originally, humans lived peacefully. Greed caused deterioration. People then elected a king (mahasammata) and paid taxes for services. Key differences: (1) Divine origin vs. human choice. (2) Status fixed by birth vs. created by humans. (3) Unchangeable vs. changeable. (4) Divine right vs. social contract. The Buddhist view implies that since humans created the system, they can also reform or change it.

Criteria in Yudhisthira's list (Sanjaya excerpt) — age, gender, kinship, other.

Criteria: (1) Religious status: Brahmanas, chief priest first. (2) Seniority/age: Elders like Bhishma, Dhritarashtra, elderly ladies. (3) Gender: Men (teachers, warriors, brothers) before women (mothers, wives, daughters). (4) Kinship closeness: Teachers → elder warriors → brothers, sons → mothers → wives → daughters-in-law → daughters. (5) Class/occupation: Courtesans and slave women last. (6) Helplessness: Aged, maimed, helpless at the very end. Vidura (born of slave woman) is mentioned warmly — showing that personal affection occasionally overrides social hierarchy.

📄 Essay Answers (Key Points for ~500 words)

Winternitz's claim: Mahabharata reflects "profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk"

Supporting the claim: The text contains war narratives, philosophy (Bhagavad Gita), social prescriptions, laws, genealogies, myths, and moral dilemmas — covering virtually every aspect of human experience. It reflects diverse social realities: Brahmanical norms, forest communities (nishadas), women's voices (Gandhari, Draupadi), lower-caste experiences (Ekalavya, Matanga). Over 1,000 years of growth means many communities contributed.
But limitations exist: It is primarily a Sanskrit text shaped by Brahmanical authors. Marginalised groups (chandalas, nishadas, women) appear distorted through elite eyes — as Mahashweta Devi's retelling shows. The "Indian folk" it reflects is filtered through a specific social perspective. So while remarkably wide in scope, it is not fully representative of all of Indian society.

Could the Mahabharata have been the work of a single author?

No — multiple authors across centuries is clearly evident:
(1) Oral origins: sutas composed it orally — no single author.
(2) Written phases: 5th century BCE (Brahmanas); 200 BCE–200 CE (Vishnu worship); 200–400 CE (didactic sections).
(3) Scale: Grew from <10,000 to ~100,000 verses — impossible for one person.
(4) Regional variations: Critical Edition shows enormous manuscript variations from Kashmir to Tamil Nadu.
(5) Internal contradictions: Same episode (Draupadi's polyandry) has three explanations; some norms endorsed, others questioned — reflects many voices, not one consistent author.
Traditional attribution to Vyasa is a literary device to give authority, not historical fact.

How important were gender differences in early societies?

Gender differences were extremely significant across all domains:
Property: Women could not inherit paternal estate (Manusmriti); only sons could. Stridhana was a limited exception. Draupadi episode shows wives could be staked like property.
Marriage: Women given in kanyadana (the father's duty). Most marriage forms gave the bride no agency. Women had to give up their gotra and adopt husband's.
Kinship: Patriliny valued sons over daughters for succession and inheritance.
Exceptions: Prabhavati Gupta, Satavahana queens had more autonomy. Tamil Sangam shows women as more active participants. Buddhists sometimes questioned gender norms.
Overall: gender was one of the primary axes of social inequality after varna.

Evidence that Brahmanical kinship/marriage prescriptions were not universally followed.

(1) Satavahana women retained father's gotra — violated rule that women must adopt husband's gotra.
(2) Satavahana endogamy — married within the same gotra and kin group, directly opposite to the exogamy prescription.
(3) Draupadi's polyandry — explicitly non-Brahmanical; multiple explanations reveal discomfort with it.
(4) South Indian endogamy — cousin marriages, prevalent in Tamil communities, contrary to Brahmanical norms.
(5) Non-Kshatriya kings — Mauryas, Satavahanas, Shungas, Shakas all ruled without being Kshatriyas.
(6) Mandasor silk weavers — guild members practised multiple occupations beyond their assigned jati.
(7) Buddhist and Jaina critiques — openly rejected varna hierarchy as natural or fixed.

📋 Worksheet — Test Yourself

A. Fill in the Blanks

1. The Mahabharata was composed over approximately years.

2. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata was prepared under the leadership of and took years to complete.

3. The Sanskrit term for a woman's wealth received at marriage is .

4. The practice of a woman having several husbands is called .

5. Satavahana rulers used — names derived from their mothers' names.

6. The Brahmanical term for 'barbarians' or outsiders is .

7. The Buddhist concept of the 'great elect' king chosen by the people is .

8. The Rigvedic hymn used to justify the divine origin of the varna order is called the .

9. B.B. Lal excavated the site of in 1951–52 to find archaeological links to the Mahabharata.

10. The original oral composers of the Mahabharata were charioteer-bards known as .

✅ Answer Key — Fill in the Blanks

1. 1,000 · 2. V.S. Sukthankar / 47 years · 3. Stridhana · 4. Polyandry · 5. Metronymics · 6. Mlechchha · 7. Mahasammata · 8. Purusha Sukta · 9. Hastinapura · 10. Sutas

B. Match the Following

Column A

1. Gotami-puta

2. Manusmriti

3. Ekalavya

4. Mahasammata

5. Stridhana

6. Mahashweta Devi

Column B

a. Brahmanical text on social norms (c. 200 BCE–200 CE)

b. Buddhist concept — elected king, taxes as payment

c. Metronymic — son of Gotami (Satavahana ruler)

d. Nishada archer denied training by Drona; gave his thumb

e. Author of "Kunti O Nishadi" — retold Mahabharata for marginalised

f. Woman's wealth from marriage gifts; inheritable by children

✅ Answer Key — Match

1 → c · 2 → a · 3 → d · 4 → b · 5 → f · 6 → e

C. True or False

FALSE Matriliny means tracing descent through the father. (That is patriliny.)

TRUE Satavahana women retained their father's gotra after marriage, violating Brahmanical rules.

FALSE The Manusmriti gave women equal right to inherit paternal property. (Only sons could inherit; women could not claim a share.)

TRUE Charioteer-bards called sutas originally composed the Mahabharata orally.

FALSE The Buddhist Sutta Pitaka says kingship was divinely ordained. (It was based on human choice — the mahasammata.)

TRUE The Mandasor inscription records silk weavers who collectively built a temple for the sun god.

FALSE Drona accepted Ekalavya as his student and taught him archery. (He refused; Ekalavya taught himself using a clay image of Drona.)

TRUE The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata took 47 years to complete and runs to over 13,000 pages.

D. One-Liner Quick Questions

What does itihasa mean?

"Thus it was" — roughly translated as history. The Mahabharata is described as an itihasa.

What is kanyadana?

The gift of a daughter in marriage — considered an important religious duty of the father.

What were the two rules about gotra?

(1) A woman must give up her father's gotra and adopt her husband's on marriage. (2) Members of the same gotra cannot marry each other.

What did Mahashweta Devi's "Kunti O Nishadi" achieve?

It retold the house-of-lac episode from the nishada woman's perspective, drawing attention to six innocent lives lost that the Sanskrit text glossed over — highlighting the exploitation of marginalised groups.

Why did the Mahabharata give three explanations for Draupadi's polyandrous marriage?

Because the practice was controversial and fell into disfavour over time. Multiple explanations show that the Brahmanical authors who reworked the text over centuries were uncomfortable with polyandry and felt they needed to justify it from multiple angles.

Class 12 NCERT History · Theme 3: Kinship, Caste and Class · Early Societies (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)
Notes prepared for educational purposes · Rationalised 2023–24