Kings, Farmers and Towns — Class 12 History Notes

Kings, Farmers and Towns

Early States and Economies · Theme 2 · c. 600 BCE – 600 CE · Class 12 NCERT History

📚 Study Notes + Visual Diagrams + Exercise Answers + Worksheet

📖 Key Terms & Concepts

Epigraphy Study of inscriptions engraved on hard surfaces.

Inscription Writing on stone, metal, or pottery; records royal achievements, donations, and edicts.

Palaeography Study of writing styles to date inscriptions with precision.

Numismatics Study of coins — scripts, images, metal content, and find contexts.

Mahajanapada Large territorial state (jana = people; pada = land). 16 such states c. 6th century BCE.

Gana / Sangha Oligarchic republics where power shared by a group of rajas. E.g., Vajji sangha.

Oligarchy Form of government where power exercised by a group of men, not one ruler.

Dhamma Asoka's moral code: respect for elders, generosity, kindness to servants, religious tolerance.

Dhamma Mahamatta Special officers appointed by Asoka to spread the message of dhamma.

Prashasti Inscription composed in praise of a king or patron, usually in Sanskrit.

Samanta Local chieftain who maintained himself through land control; gave homage and military support to kings.

Gahapati Owner/master of household; also wealthy merchants. Controlled land, workers, slaves.

Agrahara Land granted to a Brahmana, exempt from taxes; Brahmana could collect dues from local people.

Shreni / Guild Organisation of craft producers and merchants; procured materials, regulated production.

Transplantation Paddy cultivation: seeds broadcast, saplings transplanted in waterlogged fields → higher yields.

N. Black Polished Ware Fine glossy pottery used by wealthy people in early historic cities.

Punch-marked coins Earliest Indian coins (c. 6th century BCE); silver/copper with punched symbols.

Votive inscription Record of a gift made to a religious institution.

Devaputra Title meaning "son of god" adopted by Kushana rulers.

📝 Chapter Notes

1. Prinsep and Piyadassi

James Prinsep (East India Company mint officer) deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi in the 1830s.
Most inscriptions mentioned a king called Piyadassi ("pleasant to behold") — identified as Asoka of Buddhist texts.
This opened the door to reconstructing the lineages of major dynasties from inscriptions and texts.
Scholars realised connections between political history and economic/social developments were complex, not simple or direct.

2. The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

The 16 Mahajanapadas (c. 6th century BCE)

MAGADHA ⭐Cap: Rajagaha → Pataliputra

VAJJI ⭐Cap: Vaishali (Oligarchy)

KOSHALA ⭐Cap: Shravasti

KURU ⭐Cap: Indraprastha

PANCHALACap: Ahichchhatra

GANDHARA ⭐Cap: Taxila

AVANTI ⭐Cap: Ujjayini

VATSACap: Kaushambi

ANGACap: Champa

MALLACap: Kusinagara

KASHICap: Varanasi

CHEDI—

ASHMAKA—

MATSYA—

SHURASENACap: Mathura

KAMBOJA—

⭐ = most frequently mentioned in texts | Yellow highlight = oligarchic republics (ganas/sanghas)

Key Features of Mahajanapadas

Most ruled by kings; some were oligarchies (ganas/sanghas) — rajas shared power.
Both Mahavira and Buddha belonged to ganas.
Each had a fortified capital city.
Resources: taxes/tribute from cultivators, traders, artisans; raids on neighbours.
Dharmasutras (Sanskrit): rulers ideally Kshatriyas, should collect taxes, maintain armies.
Some states had standing armies + regular bureaucracies; others had militia from peasants.

Why Magadha Became Most Powerful

Modern Historians Say	Early Buddhist/Jaina Writers Say
Productive agriculture	Ambitious kings — Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda — and their able ministers
Iron mines in Jharkhand → weapons and tools
Elephants in forests → important for army
Ganga and tributaries → cheap communication

First capital: Rajagaha (Rajgir) — "house of the king"; fortified, among hills.
Later capital (4th century BCE): Pataliputra (Patna) — on Ganga, commands trade routes.

3. The Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya founded empire c. 321 BCE — extended to Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Grandson Asoka (c. 272/268–231 BCE) conquered Kalinga (coastal Orissa).
Lasted about 150 years. Ended c. 185 BCE.

Mauryan Empire — Administrative Structure

🏛️ PataliputraCAPITAL — Main administrative centre on Ganga

TaxilaNW province; long-distance trade route

UjjayiniCentral province; long-distance trade route

Suvarnagiri"Golden mountain"; tapped Karnataka gold mines

TosaliOrissa province; near Kalinga region

Military (Megasthenes — 6 subcommittees): Navy · Transport & Provisions · Infantry · Cavalry · Chariots · Elephants

Asoka's Dhamma

Respect for elders · Generosity to Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life.
Treating slaves and servants kindly · Respect for all religions.
Dhamma mahamattas appointed to spread dhamma.
Pativedakas (reporters) — kept king informed of people's affairs at all times.
Asoka: first ruler to inscribe messages on stone for subjects and officials.
Languages: Prakrit (most), Aramaic and Greek (northwest), Kharosthi (northwest).

4. New Notions of Kingship (Post-Mauryan)

Dynasty	Period	Key Claim to Power
Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas	After 2nd century BCE	Chiefdoms in Tamilakam; received gifts, not taxes; stable and prosperous
Satavahanas	c. 2nd BCE–2nd CE	W and Central India; revenue from long-distance trade
Shakas	c. 100 BCE–200 CE	Central Asian origin; NW India; trade revenues
Kushanas	c. 1st BCE–1st CE	Devaputra (son of god); colossal statues in shrines; coins show king + deity
Guptas	c. 320–550 CE	Samantas for military support; prashastis compared kings to gods

Prashastis: court poetry, NOT literal history. Example: Prayaga Prashasti (Harishena, poet of Samudragupta) compared him to gods Kubera, Varuna, Indra, Yama.
Samantas: powerful could become kings; weak kings could become subordinate to samantas.

5. A Changing Countryside

Popular Perceptions of Kings

Jatakas and Panchatantra: oral tales, later written in Pali. Reveal popular views of kings.
Gandatindu Jataka: subjects of a wicked king — "attacked by robbers at night, tax collectors by day." People escaped to forests.
Kings frequently demanded high taxes → oppressive to peasants.

Strategies for Increasing Production

Strategy	Where Used	Impact
Iron-tipped ploughshare	Ganga and Kaveri alluvial valleys (high rainfall)	↑ agricultural productivity
Paddy transplantation	Ganga valley (waterlogged fields)	Dramatically ↑ paddy yields; but back-breaking labour
Hoe agriculture	Hilly, NE and central India	Better suited to terrain; no plough needed
Irrigation (wells, tanks, canals)	Across subcontinent	Enabled agriculture in arid areas

Sudarshana Lake, Gujarat: Built under Mauryas → broken by storm → repaired by Shaka king Rudradaman (2nd century CE) → repaired again by Gupta dynasty (5th century CE). Three inscriptions on the same rock!

Rural Society Differences

Growing differentiation: landless labourers, small peasants (gahapati), large landholders.
Tamil Sangam: vellalar (large landowners), uzhavar (ploughmen), adimai (slaves).
Land grant inscriptions: usually in Sanskrit; many on copper plates; to Brahmanas or religious institutions.
Prabhavati Gupta (daughter of Chandragupta II): granted village of Danguna — exceptional as women normally couldn't own land independently.
Agrahara: land for Brahmana, tax-exempt; Brahmana could collect dues from villagers.

6. Towns and Trade

Major Cities and Their Type

City	Route Type	Significance
Pataliputra	Riverine (Ganga)	Capital of Magadha and Mauryan Empire
Ujjayini	Land route	Important trade and provincial centre
Puhar	Coastal	Start of sea routes; Chola port
Mathura	Land/crossroads	Commercial, cultural, political hub
Taxila	Land (NW)	Mauryan provincial centre; Central Asia trade

Evolution of Coinage in Ancient India

c. 6th BCEPunch-marked CoinsSilver & copper. Symbols punched. No images of rulers.

→

c. 2nd BCEIndo-Greek CoinsFIRST to bear names and images of rulers (e.g., Menander).

→

c. 1st CEKushana Gold CoinsLargest gold hoards. Same weight as Roman & Parthian coins.

→

c. 1st CEYaudheya CoinsTribal republic (Punjab/Haryana). Copper coins — shows economic participation.

→

c. 4th CEGupta Gold CoinsMost spectacular. Remarkable purity. Facilitated long-distance trade.

→

c. 6th CE+Coin finds taper offPossible economic crisis OR coins in circulation not hoarded?

Trade Goods and Routes

Goods traded: Salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices (especially pepper).
Exports to Rome: Pepper, textiles, medicinal plants, pearls, ivory, diamonds — via Arabian Sea.
Roman coin hoards found in south India — trade beyond political boundaries.
Merchants: masattuvan (Tamil), setthis/satthavahas (Prakrit) — enormously wealthy.
Guilds (shrenis): procured raw materials, regulated production, marketed goods.

7. Deciphering Inscriptions

Script	How Deciphered	Key Person
Brahmi	Worked backwards from Bengali/Devanagari; compared letter styles	James Prinsep (1838)
Kharosthi	Used bilingual Indo-Greek coins (Greek + Kharosthi) to compare letters	Prinsep + European scholars

Earliest inscriptions in Prakrit (not Sanskrit as first assumed).
Asoka's name NOT always mentioned — titles used: Devanampiya (beloved of gods), Piyadassi.
Epigraphists match content, style, language, and palaeography across inscriptions to identify same ruler.

8. Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

Technical: Faintly engraved letters, damaged/missing text, uncertain reconstructions.
Language: Exact meanings of words unclear; may be specific to place/time.
Survival: Many inscriptions destroyed; available material is a fraction of original.
Unprocessed: Thousands of inscriptions not yet deciphered, published, or translated.
Bias: Inscriptions project the perspective of the COMMISSIONER (usually royalty/elite).
Gaps: Routine daily life, ordinary suffering, and voices of marginalised groups ABSENT.
Must be read alongside other sources (coins, texts, archaeology) for a complete picture.

📌 Never Forget These Key Facts

Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1838; identified Piyadassi as Asoka
16 Mahajanapadas; most important: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti
Magadha kings: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda
Chandragupta Maurya: c. 321 BCE; Asoka: c. 272/268–231 BCE
5 Mauryan centres: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri
First coins with images: Indo-Greeks; Gold coins: Kushanas then Guptas
Kushana title: Devaputra; Gupta prashasti of Samudragupta: Prayaga Prashasti by Harishena
Sudarshana Lake repaired by: Maurya governor → Rudradaman (Shaka) → Gupta ruler
Brahmi → Prinsep 1838 | Kharosthi → Indo-Greek bilingual coins

📅 Timeline

c. 600–500 BCE

Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in Ganga valley; 16 mahajanapadas; punch-marked coins.

c. 500–400 BCE

Magadha consolidates power under Bimbisara, Ajatasattu.

c. 321 BCE

Chandragupta Maurya founds Mauryan Empire.

c. 272/268–231 BCE

Asoka reigns; conquers Kalinga; Kalinga Edict; propagates dhamma.

c. 185 BCE

End of Mauryan Empire.

c. 200–100 BCE

Indo-Greek rule in northwest; Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas in south; Satavahanas in Deccan.

c. 100 BCE–200 CE

Shakas in northwest; Roman trade flourishes; Kushana gold coins (first century CE).

c. 320 CE

Beginning of Gupta rule.

c. 335–375 CE

Samudragupta; Prayaga Prashasti composed by Harishena.

c. 375–415 CE

Chandragupta II; Prabhavati Gupta's land grant inscription.

1838 CE

Prinsep deciphers Asokan Brahmi → Piyadassi identified as Asoka.

🔍 Answers: In-Text (Discuss) Questions

Different explanations for Magadha's growth?

Modern historians: Productive agriculture; iron mines in Jharkhand (weapons/tools); elephants in forests (army); Ganga + tributaries (communication). Early Buddhist/Jaina writers: Ambitious individual kings — Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda — and their able ministers.

How useful are Megasthenes and Arthashastra for Mauryan administration?

Both are valuable but need caution. Megasthenes gives first-hand details (6 military subcommittees, taxation, river management) but as a foreigner may have misunderstood things. Arthashastra provides detailed administrative rules (elephant capture, taxation) but may reflect ideals, not actual practice. Together they give a broad picture — best cross-checked with Asokan inscriptions.

Why did kings claim divine status?

To legitimise authority without being questioned; to demand obedience; to compete with rivals; to unite diverse populations. Kushanas used Devaputra and colossal statues. Gupta prashastis compared rulers to gods. Kings also claimed divine status when they were actually losing political control — wanting to present a façade of power.

Plough agriculture, irrigation and transplantation in your state?

In Assam: All three are prevalent. Plough agriculture is common in plains. Paddy transplantation is widely used in the Brahmaputra valley. Irrigation uses ponds, wells, and canals. Jhum (shifting/hoe cultivation) is used in hilly areas of Assam — the alternative system mentioned in the chapter for hilly, northeastern regions.

Transactions in trade — which are apparent from sources?

Apparent: Goods (pepper, textiles, pearls, ivory — from Periplus); coinage (punch-marked, gold coins); guilds (shrenis) organised trade; rulers taxed routes. Not apparent: Private financial deals, credit transactions, barter, daily market prices, wages of traders, personal contracts — these left no inscriptional or literary record.

Location patterns of Asokan inscriptions (Map 2)?

Inscriptions appear along major trade routes and near important cities. Dense in north India and Deccan. Found as far as Afghanistan (northwest) and Andhra Pradesh (south). Absent in far south (Cholas, Pandyas) — suggesting those were outside the empire. The Kalinga anguish inscription is notably absent from Orissa (the conquered region itself).

✏️ Exercise Answers (100–150 words each)

Craft production in Early Historic cities — how different from Harappan?

Early Historic: Votive inscriptions name occupations (weavers, carpenters, goldsmiths, potters). Guilds (shrenis) organised production. Northern Black Polished Ware and diverse artefacts (gold, ivory, glass) found in excavations. Iron tools widely used. Harappan: Only archaeological evidence — beads, seals, weights, pottery. Specialised centres (Chanhudaro for beads; Nageshwar for shells). No written records of crafts or guilds. Key Difference: Early Historic cities have inscriptional/textual evidence naming specific craftspersons; Harappan relied entirely on material evidence. Guilds (shrenis) are a new feature of the Early Historic period.

Salient features of mahajanapadas.

(1) 16 states mentioned in early Buddhist and Jaina texts. (2) Some ruled by kings; others were oligarchies (ganas/sanghas) — rajas shared power. (3) Each had a fortified capital city. (4) Resources: taxes/tribute from cultivators, traders, artisans; raids on neighbours. (5) Dharmasutras: rulers ideally Kshatriyas; collect taxes. (6) Some had standing armies + bureaucracies; others had peasant militia. (7) Most important: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti. (8) 6th century BCE: also saw rise of Buddhism and Jainism; iron use; coinage.

How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Since ordinary people rarely left accounts, historians use: (1) Jatakas and Panchatantra — popular oral tales (e.g., Gandatindu Jataka: tax collectors attacked peasants). (2) Votive inscriptions — mention occupations of donors (weavers, potters, merchants). (3) Land grant inscriptions — describe rural populations (Brahmanas, peasants, labourers). (4) Tamil Sangam texts — vellalar, uzhavar, adimai. (5) Legal texts (Manusmrti) — boundary disputes, farming rules. These sources are partial and often elite-biased — fully reconstructing ordinary life remains challenging.

Compare gifts to Pandyan chief (Source 3) vs Danguna village (Source 8).

Pandyan chief (Silappadikaram): Received exotic forest items — ivory, fragrant wood, honey, cardamom, pepper, wild animals (tigers, elephants, peacocks), agricultural items (coconuts, mangoes, sugarcane). Village of Danguna: Produced grass, flowers, milk, rice; exempt from providing charcoal and animal hides. Similarities: Both include forest and agricultural produce. Differences: Pandyan system = gift-based (chiefdom — no regular taxes); Danguna = tax/dues-based (kingdom). Pandyan chief received luxury/wild items; Danguna village produced everyday agricultural goods for the state.

Problems faced by epigraphists.

(1) Technical: Faintly engraved letters, damaged text, missing letters — uncertain reconstructions. (2) Language: Unclear meaning of words specific to a place/time. (3) Survival: Many inscriptions not survived — available material is a fraction of total. (4) Unprocessed: Thousands not yet deciphered, published, or translated. (5) Elite bias: Almost always written from the commissioner's (usually king's) perspective. (6) Incomplete: Daily life, farming practices, women's voices, ordinary suffering — not recorded. (7) Verification: Rulers' claims may be exaggerated or false — need cross-checking.

📄 Essay Answers (Key Points for ~500 words)

Main features of Mauryan administration — evidence in Asokan inscriptions.

1. Five centres: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri — all mentioned in inscriptions.
2. Military (Megasthenes): 6 subcommittees — navy, transport/provisions, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants. Army: 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants.
3. Dhamma: Inscriptions everywhere carry the same dhamma message — universal moral code held empire together. Dhamma mahamattas appointed.
4. Pativedakas: Source 10 shows king wanted reports "at all times, anywhere."
5. Communication: Land and riverine routes vital — journeys took weeks.
In inscriptions: Administrative centres mentioned; dhamma outlined; Kalinga Edict shows conquest and remorse. But: Detailed bureaucratic structures and tax systems NOT fully described in inscriptions — Arthashastra and Megasthenes fill those gaps.

"No aspect of Indian life not reflected in inscriptions" — Discuss Sircar's statement.

Partially true: Inscriptions cover political history (Asokan edicts, prashastis), economic life (trade routes, land grants, guilds), social categories (Brahmanas, gahapati, donors), religion (dhamma, gifts to shrines), gender (Prabhavati Gupta), and geography (provincial centres, trade ports).
But limitations are serious: Routine daily life not recorded. Almost entirely elite/commissioner perspective. Pastoralists, fisherfolk, shifting cultivators left no trace. Women's lives (except queens), oral traditions, emotions, and ordinary suffering are absent. Many inscriptions damaged or untranslated. Sircar's statement is an idealization — inscriptions give wide but NOT comprehensive coverage of Indian life.

Notions of kingship in the post-Mauryan period.

Chiefdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas): Received gifts, not taxes. Performed rituals and led warfare. No regular army/officials.
Satavahanas/Shakas: Obscure origins; claimed status through control of trade revenues.
Kushanas: Divine kingship — Devaputra. Colossal statues in shrines. Coins: king on obverse, deity on reverse.
Guptas: Depended on samantas. Prashastis compared kings to gods Kubera, Varuna, Indra, Yama.
General trends: (1) Kings claimed divine status to legitimise authority. (2) Prashastis were literary works, not factual. (3) Samantas could rise or fall with kings. (4) Land grants projected power OR compensated for weakness.

To what extent were agricultural practices transformed?

Significant changes: (1) Iron-tipped ploughshare spread in fertile alluvial valleys (Ganga, Kaveri) from c. 6th century BCE — ↑ productivity. (2) Paddy transplantation dramatically ↑ yields in Ganga valley — but very labour-intensive. (3) Irrigation: wells, tanks, canals; kings recorded works (Sudarshana Lake — repaired three times across centuries). (4) Agricultural differentiation: landless labourers, small peasants, large landholders. (5) Land grants: extended farming to new areas.
Limitations: Iron ploughshare NOT used in semi-arid Punjab/Rajasthan until 20th century. Hilly areas used hoe agriculture. Benefits uneven — concentrated in Ganga valley. Pastoralists and shifting cultivators remained outside mainstream agricultural transformation.

📋 Worksheet — Test Yourself

A. Fill in the Blanks

1. The study of inscriptions is called .

2. James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in the year .

3. The name Piyadassi found in inscriptions was identified as the ruler .

4. was the Greek ambassador who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

5. Asoka used the term to refer to his moral code of conduct.

6. Special officers called were appointed by Asoka to spread dhamma.

7. The title , meaning "son of god", was adopted by Kushana rulers.

8. The Prayaga Prashasti was composed by , court poet of Samudragupta.

9. The first coins to bear names and images of rulers were issued by the .

10. Land granted to a Brahmana with tax exemption was called .

✅ Answer Key — Fill in the Blanks

1. Epigraphy · 2. 1838 · 3. Asoka · 4. Megasthenes · 5. Dhamma · 6. Dhamma Mahamattas · 7. Devaputra · 8. Harishena · 9. Indo-Greeks · 10. Agrahara

B. Match the Following

Column A

1. Rajagaha

2. Pataliputra

3. Kanishka

4. Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas

5. Shreni

6. Numismatics

Column B

a. Patna; Mauryan capital on Ganga

b. Kushana king

c. South Indian chiefdoms (Tamilakam)

d. First capital of Magadha (Rajgir)

e. Study of coins

f. Guild of craft producers and merchants

✅ Answer Key — Match

1 → d · 2 → a · 3 → b · 4 → c · 5 → f · 6 → e

C. True or False

FALSE The Mauryan Empire encompassed the entire Indian subcontinent. (It was too diverse; control was not uniform.)

TRUE Asoka was the first ruler to inscribe messages on stone for his subjects.

FALSE The Arthashastra was composed by Megasthenes. (Megasthenes wrote his own account; Arthashastra = Kautilya/Chanakya.)

TRUE The Jatakas were originally oral tales, later written down in Pali.

FALSE Transplantation required less labour. (It was described as "back-breaking work.")

TRUE The Indo-Greeks issued the first coins bearing names and images of rulers.

FALSE Brahmi script was used for Asokan inscriptions in the northwest. (Kharosthi was used in the northwest; Brahmi in most other areas.)

TRUE Prabhavati Gupta granted land to a Brahmana teacher, despite women normally not having independent access to land.

D. One-Liner Quick Questions

What does the word Piyadassi mean?

"Pleasant to behold" — a title used by Asoka in his inscriptions.

What is a gana/sangha?

An oligarchic republic where power was shared by a group of men called rajas, rather than held by a single king.

Why was Suvarnagiri important to the Mauryas?

It means "golden mountain" and was important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.

What is a prashasti?

An inscription in Sanskrit composed in praise of a king or patron — read as poetry, not literal history.

Why do gold coin finds taper off after the 6th century CE?

Two explanations: (1) Economic crisis following collapse of Western Roman Empire reduced long-distance trade. (2) Coins were in circulation rather than being hoarded, so fewer are found.

Class 12 NCERT History · Theme 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns · Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)
Notes prepared for educational purposes · Rationalised 2023–24