CLASS NOTES & WORKSHEET

Chapter 6: The Age of Reorganisation

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7

Chapter at a Glance

Period: 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE

After the fall of the Maurya Empire, India saw many new kingdoms rise.

Foreign invaders (Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas) blended with Indian culture.

This era had great growth in art, architecture, trade, and literature.

PART 1: CLASS NOTES

1. Why is it called the ‘Age of Reorganisation’?

After Ashoka, the Maurya Empire broke apart around 185 BCE.
The last Maurya emperor was killed by his commander Pushyamitra Shunga.
Many new kingdoms emerged from former Maurya territories.
These kingdoms constantly competed for power — so the map of India kept changing.
This reshaping of political boundaries is why scholars call it the ‘Age of Reorganisation’.

Key Fact

The period covers from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE — about 500 years!

Two types of dynasties: (1) From within India — Shungas, Chedis, Satavahanas, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas

(2) From outside India — Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas

2. The Shungas (185 BCE – 73 BCE)

Founded by

Pushyamitra Shunga (killed the last Maurya king)

Location

North and Central India

Notable fact

Performed the Ashvamedha Yajna to show his supremacy

What is the Ashvamedha Yajna?

A special Vedic ritual where a horse was set free to roam.
Any land the horse crossed without challenge became part of the king’s empire.
If a king stopped the horse, a battle was fought.

Contributions of the Shungas:

Revived Vedic rituals and practices.
Patronised Sanskrit literature — Patanjali compiled the Yoga Sutras during this time.
Built beautiful railings and carvings at the Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh).
Bharhut Stupa carvings show early Buddhist art with scenes from Buddha’s life.

3. The Satavahanas (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)

Also known as

Andhras

Capital cities

Amravati and Pratishthana (Paithan)

Area

Present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra

Economy & Trade:

Agriculture flourished in the Krishna-Godavari river basin.
Active trade with the Roman Empire — exported spices, textiles, ivory, pearls.
Imported glass and perfumed ointments.
Coins with ship images show maritime (sea) trade was very important.
Naneghat Caves near Pune were used for toll collection and rest by traders.

Famous rulers:

Gautamiputra Satakarni — named after his mother Gautami Balashri (a powerful queen).
In Satavahana tradition, princes used their mother’s name — this showed respect for women.

Culture & Religion:

Followers of Vasudeva (Krishna) but also supported Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist scholars.
Granted tax-free land to scholars and monks of all faiths.
Contributed to the Karla Caves (Maharashtra) — carved for Buddhist monks.

Did You Know?

Inscriptions from the Naneghat Caves contain early numerals in Brahmi script.

Some of these numerals look similar to the numbers we use today!

This shows that modern numerals (0-9) have their origins in India.

4. The Chedis (Kalinga) — Around 2nd–1st Century BCE

Region

Kalinga (present-day Odisha)

Famous ruler

Kharavela — called ‘Bhikshu-raja’ (Monk-King)

Kharavela was a devoted follower of Jainism but respected all religions.
Built the famous Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar for Jain monks.
These are excellent examples of ‘rock-cut architecture’.
The Hathigumpha Inscription records Kharavela’s achievements year by year.
He is described as ‘respector of every sect and repairer of every temple’.

5. Kingdoms of the South — Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas

These three kingdoms ruled South India from around 3rd century BCE. They competed with each other but also contributed greatly to trade, culture, and literature.

Kingdom	Capital	Region	Famous For
Cholas	Uraiyur	Parts of South India	Kallanai dam, Sangam literature
Cheras	Vanji (Karur)	Kerala + Western Tamil Nadu	Trade with Rome, Tamil literature
Pandyas	Madurai	Parts of Tamil Nadu	Pearls, naval power, inscriptions

Sangam Literature

A collection of poems by many poets of South India — the oldest literature of the region.
‘Sangam’ comes from Sanskrit ‘sangha’ = assembly or coming together.
These poems express love, heroism, and generosity.
Very important for historians to understand society and culture of the time.

The Cholas

Ruled from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE — a very long period!
King Karikala defeated the Cheras and Pandyas to establish supremacy.
Built the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) — a complex water diversion dam on the Kaveri river.
The Kaveri delta became known as the ‘rice bowl of the South’.
Kallanai is still in use today and supports agriculture in Tamil Nadu.

The Cheras

Also called Keralaputra (sons of Kerala).
Capital: Vanji (present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu).
Known for trade with the Roman Empire and West Asia.
Exported spices, timber, ivory, and pearls.
Patronised Sangam poets and Tamil literature.

The Pandyas

Capital: Madurai (still exists today!).
Megasthenes (Greek diplomat) mentions them as prosperous and well-governed.
Had trade relations with Greeks and Romans.
Famous for pearls — even Kharavela mentions getting pearls from the Pandya kingdom.
Were also an important naval power.

Silappadikaram — The Epic of the Anklet

Famous Tamil epic composed just after the Sangam period.

Story of Kannagi whose husband Kovalan was wrongly executed by the Pandya king.

Kannagi proved his innocence and cursed Madurai.

Themes: justice, ruler’s dharma, trade, and tolerance of all beliefs.

Kannagi is still worshipped as a goddess in Tamil Nadu and Kerala today!

6. The Indo-Greeks

After Alexander’s retreat from India, he left Greek governors (satraps) behind.
After the fall of the Mauryas, these rulers became independent — called Indo-Greeks.
They ruled in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, then moved into north India.
Though they came as conquerors, they adopted Indian culture.

Cultural Contribution:

Heliodorus Pillar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh): An Indo-Greek ambassador praises Vasudeva as ‘God of Gods’.
Shows how foreigners adopted Indian gods and beliefs.
Their coins had Greek deities on one side and Indian deities (Vasudeva, Lakshmi) on the other.
This mixing of cultures is a hallmark of the Age of Reorganisation.

7. The Shakas (Indo-Scythians)

Invaded northwest India after the Indo-Greeks, from 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE.
Developed the Shaka Samvat Calendar.
This calendar is 78 years behind the Gregorian calendar.
Adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957 — still used in official documents today!

8. The Kushanas

Origin

Central Asia

Period

Around 2nd century CE onwards

Famous ruler

Kanishka — ‘Maharaja, King of Kings, Son of God’

At their peak, the Kushana Empire stretched from Central Asia to northern India.
Kanishka patronised art and culture when not on military campaigns.
Controlled key sections of the Silk Route — boosted trade between India, Asia, and the West.

Two Great Art Schools of the Kushana Period:

Feature	Gandhara School	Mathura School
Location	Western Punjab (Pakistan/Afghanistan area)	Mathura, Uttar Pradesh
Material	Grey-black schist stone	Red sandstone
Style	Fusion of Greek & Indian features	Purely Indian style, fuller figures
Famous for	Realistic Buddha images, flowing robes	Indian deities: Kubera, Lakshmi, Shiva, Buddha
Influence	Greco-Roman elements visible	Less Greco-Roman, more Indian themes

Coins of Kanishka — What They Tell Us

Coin 1: Shows Kanishka holding a spear on one side; Buddha with Greek inscription ‘BODDO’ on the other.

Coin 2: Emperor on one side; Shiva with bull Nandi on the other.

This shows Kanishka respected both Buddhist and Hindu traditions.

Featuring deities on coins = showing respect to multiple religions to unite people.

PART 2: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

This section covers all questions asked in the chapter — ‘Think About It’, ‘Let’s Explore’, and the end-of-chapter exercises.

A. ‘Think About It’ Questions (In-Chapter)

Q1. What could the tradition of using the mother’s name at the beginning of a king’s name signify? (Satavahanas)

Ans: It shows the important role of women in Satavahana society. It honoured the queen-mother and showed that lineage through the mother was respected. It also helped identify the king’s family clearly.

Q2. In the numerals shown, which ones look like our modern numerals? Which don’t?

Ans: The numerals 7 and 9 look somewhat similar to modern ones. The numerals 1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 look quite different from what we use today.

Q3. A goldsmith made a sculpture of stone. What does this tell us about professions at the time?

Ans: It shows that artisans were skilled in multiple crafts. People were not restricted to one profession — a goldsmith could also be a sculptor. Society valued versatile craftsmen who could work with different materials.

Q4. How did artisans achieve such precision in rock-cut architecture with just a chisel and hammer?

Ans: Artisans had great skill, patience, and training passed down through generations. They carefully planned the design before cutting. The use of simple but precise tools, combined with years of practice, allowed them to create such accurate chambers.

Q5. What do the symbols alongside kingdom names on the map represent?

Ans: The symbols represent the royal emblems (flags/banners) of each kingdom. For example, the Chola emblem has a tiger, the Pandya emblem has a fish, and the Chera emblem has a bow. These symbols showed the unique identity and pride of each kingdom.

Q6. Why were pearls an important article of trade?

Ans: Pearls were rare, beautiful, and highly valued as luxury items. They were used in jewellery by royalty and the wealthy. Since South India (especially the Pandya region) had access to pearls from the sea, they became a prized export item to distant lands like Rome and Greece.

Q7. What might have been the meaning of Indian deities on Indo-Greek coins?

Ans: It shows that the Indo-Greeks had adopted Indian culture and religion. By placing Indian gods on their coins, they showed respect for Indian traditions and tried to connect with local people. It was a way to gain acceptance and legitimacy in the eyes of their Indian subjects.

Q8. Why would a powerful ruler like Kanishka feature Buddha and Shiva on his coins?

Ans: By featuring both Buddhist and Hindu deities, Kanishka showed that he respected all religions equally. This helped him gain the support of both Buddhist and Hindu populations. It also reflected the Kushana tradition of religious tolerance and cultural mixing.

B. ‘Let’s Explore’ Activities (Key Answers)

Q9. How many years does the timeline from 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE cover?

Ans: From the first year of the 2nd century BCE (200 BCE) to the last year of the 3rd century CE (300 CE) = 200 + 300 = 500 years in total.

Q10. How many kingdoms were in the post-Maurya period compared to the single Maurya empire?

Ans: At least 8 major kingdoms can be counted: Shungas, Chedis, Satavahanas, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Indo-Greeks, and Shakas/Kushanas. This is far more than the single united Maurya empire.

Q11. How do historians uncover trade relations between distant kingdoms?

Ans: Through several sources: (1) Coins found at distant locations, (2) Written records and inscriptions mentioning trade goods, (3) Foreign accounts like Megasthenes’ ‘Indika’, (4) Archaeological finds of imported goods at sites, (5) Ancient texts and Sangam poems that describe traded items.

C. End-of-Chapter Exercise Questions

Q1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of reorganisation?

Ans: After the Maurya Empire broke up around 185 BCE, the subcontinent reorganised into many new kingdoms. These kingdoms — both from within India (Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas) and from outside (Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas) — constantly competed for power. New borders were drawn, old ones changed, and people’s lives transformed. This continuous reshaping of political power gave the period its name — the ‘Age of Reorganisation’.

Q2. Write a note on Sangam literature (150 words).

Ans: Sangam literature is the oldest body of literature from South India, produced roughly between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE. The word ‘Sangam’ comes from the Sanskrit ‘sangha’, meaning an assembly or gathering — referring to the assemblies of poets who composed these works. The Sangam literature consists of several anthologies and collections of poems in Tamil. These poems beautifully express personal emotions like love, as well as social values like heroism and generosity. They are studied by historians to understand the society, culture, trade, and daily life of the Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms. The famous epic Silappadikaram (The Tale of the Anklet) was composed soon after the Sangam period. Sangam literature is a priceless treasure that shows how developed and rich South Indian civilisation was over 2,000 years ago.

Q3. Which rulers included their mother’s name in their title, and why?

Ans: The Satavahana rulers followed this tradition. For example, Gautamiputra Satakarni included his mother’s name ‘Gautami’ in his title. This tradition showed deep respect for the queen-mother and recognised the important role women played in royal life. It also helped identify royal lineage clearly. Queen Gautami Balashri was herself very powerful — she donated land to Buddhist monks and had inscriptions made in Nashik, showing her influence in the kingdom.

Q4. Write a note about one interesting kingdom from this chapter (example: Satavahanas).

Ans: The Satavahana Kingdom (Sample Answer): The Satavahana dynasty is one of the most fascinating kingdoms of the Age of Reorganisation. They ruled large parts of the Deccan — present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra — from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. What makes them special is their remarkable trade network, which extended all the way to the Roman Empire! They exported spices, textiles, ivory, and pearls, and their coins bearing images of ships tell us that maritime trade was very important. They were also culturally rich — they respected multiple religions, granting land to Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist scholars equally. The Karla Caves near Lonavala, contributed by the Satavahanas, are an architectural marvel carved from a rocky hillside. Their queens too were powerful — Gautami Balashri donated land and had inscriptions carved. The Satavahanas perfectly represent how India’s ancient kingdoms blended political strength with cultural generosity.

Q6. Mark approximate locations of ancient structures mentioned in the chapter.

Ans: Structures and locations: (1) Bharhut Stupa — Madhya Pradesh (central India), (2) Naneghat Caves — near Pune, Maharashtra, (3) Karla Caves — near Lonavala, Maharashtra, (4) Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves — near Bhubaneswar, Odisha, (5) Heliodorus Pillar — near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, (6) Kallanai (Grand Anicut) — on river Kaveri, Tamil Nadu. [Students should mark these on a map of India.]

PART 3: QUICK REVISION TOOLS

Key Terms Glossary

Term	Meaning
Age of Reorganisation	Period after Maurya empire when India was reorganised into many new kingdoms
Ashvamedha Yajna	Vedic ritual where a horse was set free — lands it crossed became the king’s
Matrimonial Alliance	An alliance formed through marriage between royal families
Sangam Literature	Oldest Tamil literature — anthologies of poems about love and heroism
Rock-cut Architecture	Caves and structures carved directly into rock (e.g. Udayagiri caves)
Silk Route	Ancient trade route connecting China with the Mediterranean world
Shaka Samvat	Calendar developed by the Shakas; India’s official National Calendar since 1957
Satrap	A regional governor left behind by Alexander; some became independent rulers
Gandhara School	Art style blending Greek and Indian features; used grey-black schist stone
Mathura School	Purely Indian art style using red sandstone; showed Indian deities
Maritime Trade	Trade conducted by sea
Dana	Donation — land, animals, coins given to scholars, monks, and workers

Timeline Summary

Approx. Period	Event / Dynasty
185 BCE	Pushyamitra Shunga kills last Maurya king; Shunga dynasty begins
2nd century BCE onwards	Satavahanas rise in the Deccan; Chedis prominent in Kalinga
2nd century BCE	Indo-Greeks enter northwest India; South Indian kingdoms (Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas) prominent
2nd century BCE – 5th century CE	Shakas (Indo-Scythians) rule northwest India
2nd century CE onwards	Kushanas enter India from Central Asia; Kanishka — great ruler
3rd century CE	Satavahana Empire fragments; Sangam Age in full bloom in South India

Mnemonic: Remember All 8 Dynasties

Memory Trick — ‘S-S-C-C-C-P-I-S-K’

Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis — native dynasties of north/central/east India

Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas — three crowned kings of South India

Indo-Greeks — came first from outside

Shakas — came second from outside

Kushanas — came third from outside

Remember: ‘Some Students Can Count, Clever Pupils Introduce Study Keenly!’

Important Structures Quick Reference

Structure	Location (Modern)	Built by / Period	Significance
Bharhut Stupa	Madhya Pradesh	Ashokan era; Shungas added railings	Earliest Buddhist art
Karla Caves	Near Lonavala, Maharashtra	Satavahana period	Buddhist cave temple carved from rock
Naneghat Caves	Near Pune, Maharashtra	Satavahana period	Toll collection; Brahmi inscriptions
Udayagiri-Khandagiri	Near Bhubaneswar, Odisha	Chedi ruler Kharavela	Jain rock-cut architecture
Hathigumpha Inscription	Inside Udayagiri Caves	King Kharavela	Records his achievements year by year
Heliodorus Pillar	Near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh	Indo-Greek ambassador	Shows Greek adoption of Vaishnavism
Kallanai (Grand Anicut)	On river Kaveri, Tamil Nadu	Chola king Karikala	Water diversion; still in use today!

Values & Principles of Rulers of This Age

One common thread across all the kingdoms studied in this chapter:

Respect for multiple religions — rulers patronised Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Vedic traditions simultaneously.
Concern for public welfare — building dams, caves, rest stops for traders.
Patronage of arts and literature — Bharhut Stupa, Karla Caves, Sangam poetry, Sanskrit texts.
Cultural tolerance — even foreign rulers (Heliodorus, Kanishka) adopted Indian gods and customs.
This broad acceptance of all traditions is described in the chapter as the ‘Indian ethos’.

Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Chapter 6 | Grade 7 | Notes & Worksheet