CLASS NOTES & WORKSHEET Chapter 6 The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation Exploring Society: India and Beyond |
PART 1: CHAPTER NOTES
1. What Is a Civilisation?
A civilisation is an advanced stage of human society. It must have these 7 key features:
7 FEATURES OF A CIVILISATION | |
🏛️ Government & Administration — manages complex society | 🏙️ Urbanism — planned cities with water & drainage systems |
🔨 Crafts — making tools, ornaments from raw materials | 🚢 Trade — exchange of goods within & outside the region |
✍️ Writing — to keep records and communicate | 🎨 Cultural Ideas — art, architecture, social customs |
🌾 Productive Agriculture — feeds both villages and cities |
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→ Mesopotamia (Iraq & Syria) — civilisation began ~6,000 years ago (4000 BCE)
→ Ancient Egypt — began a few centuries after Mesopotamia (~3000 BCE)
→ Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation — ~2600 to 1900 BCE
2. The Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation
KEY FACTS AT A GLANCE |
• Other names: Harappan, Indus, Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation • Period: ~2600 BCE to 1900 BCE • Inhabitants called: Harappans (named after Harappa, first excavated city, 1920–21) • Region: Punjab, Sindh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat — along Indus & Sarasvati rivers • Also called: “First Urbanisation of India” |
The Sarasvati River
The Sarasvati river flowed from the Himalayas through Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Today it is called Ghaggar (India) and Hakra (Pakistan). It is mentioned in the Rig Veda as flowing ‘from the mountain to the sea’. The river later dried up completely.
Major Cities & Their Locations
Harappan City | Modern State / Region |
Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan |
Mohenjo-daro | Sindh, Pakistan |
Kalibangan | Rajasthan, India |
Rakhigarhi | Haryana, India |
Dholavira | Gujarat, India |
Lothal | Gujarat, India |
Ganweriwala | Cholistan desert, Pakistan |
3. Town-Planning
Harappan cities were carefully planned. Key features:
- Wide streets — oriented towards cardinal directions (N, S, E, W)
- Two parts — Upper town (elite/rulers) + Lower town (common people)
- Dholavira had three distinct zones (unique!)
- Fortification walls — massive protective walls around cities
- Buildings — made of bricks, same quality for rich and poor
- Large warehouses — to store goods for trade
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) — elaborate tank, 12×7 m, waterproofed with bitumen; purpose debated (royal bath OR religious rituals — public bath ruled out as most houses had bathrooms)
4. Water Management
- Homes had separate bathing areas connected to underground drains
- Mohenjo-daro had 700+ brick wells maintained for centuries
- Dholavira had 6+ large rock-cut reservoirs, largest = 73 metres long
- Underground drains connected reservoirs for water harvesting & distribution
5. What Did the Harappans Eat?
HARAPPAN FOOD & FARMING |
• Crops grown: Barley, wheat, millets, rice, pulses, vegetables • Cotton: First in Eurasia to grow cotton (used for clothing) • Tools: Used plough (clay model found at Banawali, Haryana) • Animals: Domesticated animals for meat; fished in rivers & sea • Spices (surprising!): Turmeric, ginger, banana residues found in clay pots |
6. A Brisk Trade
Harappans traded both within their civilisation and with far-off regions like Mesopotamia and Oman.
Exports
- Ornaments — especially carnelian beads (reddish stone from Gujarat)
- Timber, objects of daily use, gold, cotton, possibly food
- Shell bangles (made from conch shells using advanced techniques)
- Ivory combs — found as far as Oman coast
Trade Routes & Tools
- By land, river — for nearby trade
- By sea — first intensive maritime (sea) trade in India
- Lothal dockyard — 217 m long × 36 m wide basin for boats (Gujarat)
- Seals — small steatite stamps with animal figures + Harappan script; used to identify goods & traders
Metals: Harappans mastered copper. Copper + Tin = Bronze (harder). Used for tools, pots, figurines.
7. Art, Culture & Daily Life
Archaeologists have found many objects that tell us about Harappan life:
Object | Significance |
Dancing Girl (Bronze figurine) | Shows advanced metallurgy; from Mohenjo-daro; 10.8 cm |
Priest King statuette | Shows elite/ruler class; exact identity unknown |
Swastika seal | Religious/cultural symbol |
Three-faced deity seal | Possibly an early form of Shiva; seated among animals |
Terracotta figurine (Namaste) | Social gesture still used today |
Lothal pot design | Seems to show story of the thirsty crow — 4000 yr old! |
Gamesboard (Dholavira) | Shows leisure activities — adults & children played games |
Stone weights | Shows standardised measurement system for trade |
8. The End or a New Beginning? (Decline ~1900 BCE)
Around 1900 BCE, cities were abandoned one by one and people returned to rural settlements.
Why did the civilisation decline?
- NOT due to warfare/invasion — no trace of army or weapons of war found
- Climate change (2200 BCE) — reduced rainfall → drier climate → less agriculture → food shortage
- Sarasvati River dried up — cities like Kalibangan and Banawali were suddenly abandoned
Despite the decline, Harappan culture and technology survived and passed on to the next phase of Indian civilisation.
Key Words / Glossary
Word | Meaning |
Metallurgy | Techniques of extracting metals, purifying or combining them |
Tributary | A river that flows into a larger river (e.g., Yamuna → Ganga) |
Civilisation | Advanced stage of human society with government, cities, trade, writing, etc. |
Fortification | A massive protective wall surrounding a settlement |
Elite | Higher layers of society — rulers, officials, priests |
Reservoir | A large natural or artificial place where water is stored |
Pulses | Crops like beans, peas and lentils (dal) |
Maritime | Related to the sea |
Urbanism | Growth and management of cities |
Steatite | Soft stone used to make Harappan seals, hardened by heating |
Bitumen | Natural tar-like material used for waterproofing the Great Bath |
Carnelian | Reddish semiprecious stone from Gujarat, used for beads |
PART 2: WORKSHEET WITH ANSWERS Chapter 6 — The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation |
SECTION A: Questions From Inside the Chapter
Think About It — Page 86
Q: Which feature of a civilisation is the MOST fundamental? A: Productive agriculture is the most fundamental feature, as it produces food to sustain all the people — farmers, craftsmen, traders, rulers, priests. Without enough food, no city or complex society can exist. Agriculture supports all other features. |
Think About It — Page 91
Q: Why is the term ‘Indus Valley civilisation’ now considered outdated? A: The civilisation extended far beyond the Indus Valley — cities were found in Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan, and along the Sarasvati River. The term ‘Indus Valley’ is too narrow. Better names are: Harappan, Indus-Sarasvati, or Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation. |
Think About It — Page 96
Q: Dholavira had a huge network of reservoirs. What does this tell us about its government? A: Building such large reservoirs needed careful planning, a large workforce, and regular maintenance. This shows Dholavira had a strong, organised local government (municipal administration) that could direct workers, manage labour (possibly by paying in food/goods), and maintain public works over a long time. |
Think About It — Page 102
Q: Why did Harappans return to rural settlements after the decline? A: A rural lifestyle gives easier access to food and water. Cities depend on villages for daily food supply. When food production fell due to climate change and the drying of the Sarasvati River, people found it safer and easier to live in smaller rural settlements near farmland and water sources. |
Let’s Explore — Great Bath (Page 93)
Q: What was the purpose of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro? A: Two likely explanations: (1) A royal bath — used only by the king/ruling family as a symbol of status. (2) A religious ritual tank — used for ceremonial purification rites by priests or during religious festivals. The first explanation (public bath) is ruled out because most houses in the city already had private bathrooms. |
SECTION B: Questions, Activities & Projects (Page 104)
Q1. Why does this civilisation have several names? What is their significance?
ANSWER |
The civilisation has several names because: • Indus / Indus Valley — Named after the Indus (Sindhu) river, where the first cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were found. • Harappan — Named after Harappa, the first city excavated (1920–21) by archaeologists. • Indus-Sarasvati / Sindhu-Sarasvati — Most accurate name, as many sites were found along the ancient Sarasvati River too. The civilisation extended far beyond the Indus region. Each name reflects how our understanding grew as new sites were discovered over time. |
Q2. Write a brief report (150–200 words) on achievements of the Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation.
ANSWER |
The Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) was one of the oldest and most advanced civilisations in the world. The Harappans built well-planned cities with wide streets, strong fortification walls, and efficient drainage systems. Their cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Dholavira had separate upper and lower towns, brick-built houses of uniform quality, and large public structures like the Great Bath. Water management was exceptional — Dholavira had at least six large rock-cut reservoirs connected by underground drains. They grew diverse crops including wheat, barley, cotton, and various vegetables. They were the first in Eurasia to cultivate cotton. Trade flourished across sea and land routes. They exported carnelian beads, ivory combs, and textiles, and traded as far as Mesopotamia and Oman. They used standardised weights, developed a writing system (still undeciphered), and created beautiful art including the famous Dancing Girl bronze figurine. Their civilisation shows remarkable civic sense, cooperation, and technological skill. |
Q3. Travel from Harappa to Kalibangan — options and time.
ANSWER |
Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) to Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India) is approximately 500–600 km. Harappan travel options: • By land (bullock cart / on foot) — Along roads and trade routes. Bullock cart: ~30–40 km/day = about 15–20 days. On foot: ~20–25 km/day = about 25–30 days. • By river (boat) — Along the Ravi, Sutlej, or Sarasvati river routes. Faster with river current; perhaps 10–12 days. Note: These are estimates. The Harappans had no modern roads or vehicles. |
Q4. A Harappan in a modern Indian kitchen — biggest surprises?
ANSWER |
A Harappan would be amazed by: 1. Running water taps & piped water supply — They used wells and drains but had no taps. 2. Gas stove / electric cooktop — They cooked on wood-fired ovens. 3. Refrigerator — No way to preserve food in their time. 4. Many new foods: tomatoes, potatoes, chilli, tea — These came from other continents much later. 5. Electric lights — They used oil lamps for light. |
Q5. Ornaments / gestures / objects that still feel familiar today.
ANSWER |
• Bangles — Still worn by women; full-arm bangles still seen in Gujarat and Rajasthan. • Namaste gesture — Terracotta figurine in Namaste pose; the gesture is still used in India today! • Combs — Ivory comb found; still used today. • Plough — Clay model found at Banawali; similar tools still used by farmers. • Board games and toys — Still played by children and adults. • Swastika symbol — Found on seal; still used as an auspicious symbol in India. |
Q6. What mindset do the Dholavira reservoirs reflect?
ANSWER |
The reservoirs at Dholavira reflect a mindset of long-term planning, collective responsibility, and civic sense. The Harappans understood that water is essential for survival, especially in an arid region like the Rann of Kutch. Building 6+ large reservoirs connected by underground drains shows they were skilled engineers who planned for the future (water harvesting), thought about the entire community (not just individuals), and had a disciplined, cooperative society willing to work together on large public projects. |
Q7. About 700 wells in Mohenjo-daro — what are the implications?
ANSWER |
700 wells, maintained for centuries, tells us: • Large population — Such a huge number of wells shows the city had thousands of residents. • Civic administration — Wells needed regular cleaning and repair; this required organised management by city authorities. • High civic sense — Citizens cooperated to maintain shared resources for the common good. • Planned urban living — Wells were distributed across the city, not just in one area — showing thoughtful city planning. |
Q8. Harappans had a ‘high civic sense’ — do you agree? Compare with today.
ANSWER |
Yes, the Harappans showed remarkable civic sense: • They built and maintained public drains, wells, and reservoirs for everyone. • Houses of rich and poor were built to the same quality — no exploitation. • Waste water was removed through underground drains — keeping the city clean. Comparison with today: • Many Indian cities today struggle with garbage, clogged drains, and water waste — showing lower civic sense compared to Harappans. • However, modern cities also have positive examples of civic responsibility — clean city campaigns, community wells, water harvesting. Conclusion: The Harappans set a high standard of civic life that is still an inspiration today. |
QUICK REVISION SUMMARY
Topic | Key Point |
Period | 2600–1900 BCE |
Names | Harappan, Indus, Indus-Sarasvati, Sindhu-Sarasvati |
First excavated city | Harappa (1920–21); first identified: 1924 |
Region | Punjab, Sindh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat |
Famous river | Sarasvati (now Ghaggar-Hakra), first mentioned in Rig Veda |
City structure | Upper town (elite) + Lower town (common people) |
Dholavira special | 3 zones (not 2); 6+ rock-cut reservoirs; stone foundations |
Great Bath | Mohenjo-daro; 12×7 m; waterproofed with bitumen; purpose: religious? |
First cotton growers | Harappans — first in Eurasia |
Seals | Made of steatite; animal figures + Harappan script; used for trade ID |
Lothal | Dockyard 217×36 m; carnelian beads exported from here |
Dancing Girl | Bronze figurine, 10.8 cm; from Mohenjo-daro |
Decline reasons | Climate change (drier, 2200 BCE) + Sarasvati River dried up |
NOT the cause of decline | War or invasion — NO evidence found |
“In essence, the Harappan societal scenario was not that of ‘exploitation’, but of mutual ‘accommodation’.
— B.B. Lal