🌏 CHAPTER 3: CLIMATES OF INDIA

Class 7 | Exploring Society: India and Beyond

Notes + Worksheet with Answers

“May the rains be timely, may the Earth be lush with vegetation…” – Subhāśhita

📝 STUDY NOTES

WEATHER = Short-term state of atmosphere at a specific TIME & PLACE (daily changes).

SEASONS = Recur every year; pattern of weather changes within each year.

CLIMATE = Long-term pattern of weather over DECADES (30+ years) in a region.

Example: ‘It is raining today’ = Weather. ‘Mumbai gets heavy rain every June–September’ = Climate.

Ṛitu (Season)

English

Approx. Months

Festival Example

Vasanta

Spring

Feb–Mar

Vasanta Pañchamī

Grīṣhma

Summer

Apr–May

—

Varṣhā

Rainy Season

Jun–Sep

Onam (end of monsoon)

Śharad

Autumn

Oct–Nov

Śharad Pūrṇima

Hemanta

Pre-Winter

Nov–Dec

Chhath Puja

Śhiśhir

Winter

Dec–Jan

Lohri, Makar Sankranti

World has 4 seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter.

India has 5/6 seasons including MONSOON as a separate rainy season.

Life in India revolves around ṛitus: crops, food, clothing, festivals, and animal behaviour all change with seasons.

Region/Area

Climate Type

Characteristics

Crops/Feature

Himalayan Mountains (north)

Alpine

Cold snowy winters, cool summers

Thick clothing; hill stations

Hilly areas / lower Himalayas

Temperate

Moderately cold winters, not too hot summers

Hill stations (Shimla, Ooty, Darjeeling)

Northern Plains

Subtropical

Very hot summers, cold winters

Wheat

Thar Desert (west)

Arid

Extremely hot days, cool nights, very little rain

Unique water collection (taanka)

Western Coastal Strip

Tropical Wet

Heavy monsoon rainfall

Rice, spices

Deccan Plateau (central)

Semi-Arid

Hot summers, mild winters, moderate rain

Dryland crops

Eastern India & Southern Peninsula

Tropical

Mild winters, distinct wet & dry periods (monsoon)

Rice, pulses

Factor

How It Works

India Example

a) Latitude

Equator = hot (sun rays perpendicular, concentrated energy). Poles = cold (rays oblique, spread over large area).

Kanniyakumari (low lat) = hot year-round. Srinagar (high lat) = much cooler.

b) Altitude

Higher altitude = lower pressure = less dense air = cooler. Also farther from Earth’s warm surface.

Ooty (2240m) much cooler than Coimbatore (411m) at SAME latitude.

c) Proximity to Sea

Sea absorbs & loses heat SLOWLY. Acts as temperature moderator. Coastal = mild. Inland = extreme.

Mumbai (coast): 32°C summer, 18°C winter. Nagpur (inland): 44°C summer, 10°C winter.

d) Winds

Hot dry winds from deserts = heat waves. Cold winds from mountains = cold waves. Moist winds from sea = rain.

Western India: hot dry winds from Arabia. North India: cold winds from Himalayas.

e) Topography

Mountains block cold/hot winds. Shape rainfall patterns. Mountains force air up, causing rain on one side.

Himalayas block cold Central Asian winds. Western Ghats: heavy rain on west, less on Deccan plateau (east).

Mumbai (Coastal)

Nagpur (Inland)

Distance from sea

Near coast

Far from coast

Summer temperature

~32°C (cool)

~44°C (hot)

Winter temperature

~18°C (mild)

~10°C (cold)

Temp Range (Max−Min)

~14°C (small)

~34°C (large)

Why?

Sea moderates temperature

No sea nearby; extreme variation

Key principle: COASTAL areas have SMALLER temperature range. INLAND areas have LARGER temperature range.

Ooty vs Coimbatore: Same latitude, but Ooty is at 2240m altitude so much cooler (10–25°C) than Coimbatore (411m, 25–38°C).

🏙️ Microclimate = A climate localised in a SMALL AREA, different from the surrounding region.

Examples: Enclosed valleys, dense forests, urban heat islands.

Urban Heat Islands: Cities with lots of buildings/concrete and little vegetation trap heat → much warmer than surrounding areas.

Monsoon = From Arabic ‘mausim’ meaning ‘season’. Strictly = seasonal winds over the Indian Ocean region.

The word ‘monsoon’ is commonly used to mean the SEASONAL RAINS that the monsoon winds bring.

Key principle: LAND heats and cools FASTER than the ocean → this creates pressure differences → wind movement.

Step 1: Summer begins → Asian landmass heats up rapidly

Step 2: A powerful LOW-PRESSURE system forms over the hot land

Step 3: Air flows from HIGH pressure (cool ocean) → LOW pressure (hot land)

Step 4: Moisture-laden ocean winds blow towards India (from the southwest = SW Monsoon)

Step 5: Moisture condenses over the hot land and falls as HEAVY MONSOON RAINS

Step 6: Rains start at southern tip of India in early June → cover all of India by mid-July

Step 7: Western Ghats act as barrier → heavy rain on western slopes, less on Deccan (east side)

Southwest Monsoon (Summer)

Northeast Monsoon (Winter)

Season

June – September

October – December

Wind direction

Ocean → Land (SW to NE)

Land → Ocean (NE to SW)

Pressure on land

LOW (heated landmass)

HIGH (cooled landmass)

Pressure on ocean

HIGH (cooler ocean)

LOW (warmer ocean)

Rainfall

Heavy → most of India

Light → mainly east & south India

Areas affected

Whole of India (by mid-July)

Mainly Tamil Nadu, AP, east coast

Moisture source

Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal

Bay of Bengal (passes over it)

🌟 Amazing Facts:

• Mawsynram (Meghalaya) = Highest average annual rainfall in the WORLD: ~11,000 mm (= 11 metres!)

• Monsoons inspired Indian classical music: Meghamalhār and Amruthavarshini are rain-related rāgas

• Fishermen on Konkan coast predict monsoon onset when deep-sea fish come to the surface.

• Southern India: Monsoon expected within 50 days after Golden Shower tree (Cassia fistula) blossoms.

• Crows building high nests = less rain expected; low nests = heavy rain expected.

Climate affects: Culture & Festivals | Agriculture & Food | Economy | Health

Festival

State/Region

Season/Month

Significance

Bihu

Assam

Spring & harvest (April)

Celebrates Assamese New Year & harvest

Baisakhi

Punjab, Haryana

Spring harvest (April 13/14)

Wheat harvest festival; Sikh New Year

Pongal

Tamil Nadu

Winter solstice (Jan 14–17)

4-day harvest festival thanking Sun God

Onam

Kerala

After monsoon (Aug–Sep)

Harvest festival; boat races

Lohri

Punjab

Pre-harvest (Jan 13)

Bonfire festival; end of winter

Chhath Puja

Bihar, UP

Post-monsoon (Oct–Nov)

Worship of Sun for harvest & prosperity

Makar Sankranti

Pan-India

Winter solstice (Jan 14)

Sun enters Capricorn; kite festival

Gudi Padwa

Maharashtra

Spring (March–April)

Marathi New Year; start of spring

Hemis

Ladakh

Summer (June–July)

Buddhist festival; end of harsh winter

Losoong

Sikkim

Post-harvest (Dec)

Sikkimese New Year after harvest

Economic Impact of Monsoon:

• Monsoon FAILURE (poor rainfall) → Agriculture suffers → Food prices rise → Inflation

• Women have to walk long distances for water | Labour migration to cities

• Industries depend on predictable weather and water availability

Disaster

Definition

Cause

Affected Regions

Human Role

🌀 Cyclone

Intense rotating storm with very high winds

Low pressure near sea + intense moisture + high wind speed

Eastern coastline (mostly); also west

Increased by climate change warming the ocean

🌊 Flood

Water overflowing into normally dry land

Heavy rain, rivers/lakes overflowing, glacial burst

UP, Bihar, Kerala, AP, Assam; Himalayan valleys

Deforestation, poor drainage, urban concrete surfaces

🏔️ Landslide

Sudden collapse of rock/soil/debris down a slope

Heavy rain, earthquakes, deforestation

HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal, W. Ghats

Cutting forests, unsafe construction, blocked waterways

🔥 Forest Fire

Uncontrolled fire spreading through vegetation

Dry climate, drought, high winds, human carelessness

Uttarakhand, HP, MP, Chhattisgarh, W. Ghats

Human carelessness; worsened by rising temperatures

⚠️ Important: Glacial Burst (GLOF = Glacial Lake Outburst Flood):

Glacial lakes are held by rock/ice barriers. Fast glacier melt (due to climate change) → pressure builds → barrier breaks = sudden devastating flood.

2013 Uttarakhand disaster: Glacial burst + continuous rain → landslides → Kedarnath area destroyed → ~6,000 people (including pilgrims) killed.

NDRF = National Disaster Response Force

• Specially trained to respond to both natural and human-made disasters

• 12 battalion locations across India

• Key role in cyclone, flood, and landslide rescue and evacuation

Climate Change = Significant, long-term shifts in global/regional temperature, precipitation and weather events.

Natural processes drove climate change in the past (millions of years).

Since the 19th century, HUMAN ACTIVITIES are the main driver of rapid climate change.

Cause

How it affects climate

Burning of Fossil Fuels (coal, petroleum, gas)

Releases CO₂ and greenhouse gases → traps extra heat → global warming

Deforestation

Fewer trees to absorb CO₂ → more CO₂ in atmosphere → more warming

Harmful Industrial Practices

Greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, waste

Excessive/Wasteful Consumption

More energy used → more fossil fuels burned → more emissions

The Greenhouse Effect:

• Natural greenhouse effect: CO₂ and greenhouse gases trap some sun heat → keeps Earth warm enough for life (GOOD).

• Human activities release EXTRA greenhouse gases → trap EXTRA heat → Earth gets TOO warm = GLOBAL WARMING (BAD).

India 2025: Average temperature was 1–3°C above normal; winter much shorter and milder than usual.

Climate Mitigation Measures (reducing climate change):

• Cutting down greenhouse gas emissions

• Planting more trees (reforestation)

• Boosting renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro)

• Improving energy efficiency

• Promoting sustainable lifestyles and consumption

• Building community resilience and adaptation capacity

⚡ QUICK REVISION – KEY FACTS

Remember these!

• Weather = daily; Seasons = yearly; Climate = decades (30+ years)

• India has 7 climate types: Alpine, Temperate, Subtropical, Arid, Tropical Wet, Semi-Arid, Tropical

• 5 factors of climate: Latitude | Altitude | Proximity to sea | Winds | Topography

• Equator = hot; Poles = cold (due to angle of sun’s rays)

• Higher altitude = lower pressure = less dense air = cooler temperature

• Coastal areas = moderate temperature (smaller range); Inland = extreme temperature (larger range)

• Monsoon from Arabic ‘mausim’ = ‘season’

• SW Monsoon: June–Sep | Starts southern tip June | Covers India by mid-July

• NE Monsoon: Oct–Dec | Winds go land → ocean | Brings rain to east & south India

• Mawsynram, Meghalaya = world’s highest annual rainfall (~11,000 mm)

• Eye of cyclone = cloudless centre of the storm

• Glacial burst = sudden break of glacial lake barrier = devastating flood

• 2013 Uttarakhand disaster: ~6,000 people killed near Kedarnath

• NDRF = National Disaster Response Force, 12 locations in India

• Fossil fuels = coal, petroleum, natural gas (formed from dead organisms, millions of years ago)

• Greenhouse effect: CO₂ traps heat. Extra CO₂ from humans = global warming

• India 2025: temperature 1–3°C above normal; shorter winter

• Six Indian seasons (ṛitus): Vasanta, Grīṣhma, Varṣhā, Śharad, Hemanta, Śhiśhir

📋 WORKSHEET – QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

SECTION A: In-Chapter Questions

✏️ Answer:

• Latitude is the same, so that factor is equal for both cities.

• The key difference is ALTITUDE: Ooty is at ~2240 m above sea level; Coimbatore is only at ~411 m.

• Higher altitude = lower atmospheric pressure = less dense air = cooler temperature.

• Also, the higher you go, the farther you are from the Earth’s warm surface.

• Result: Ooty summers 10–25°C; Coimbatore summers 25–38°C.

• This is why hill stations like Ooty, Shimla, Darjeeling are cooler than the plains below.

✏️ Answer:

• Land heats up and cools down FASTER than the ocean (the ocean retains heat much longer).

• In SUMMER: Land heats up quickly → creates a LOW-pressure system over the land.

• Ocean remains cooler → HIGH pressure over the ocean.

• Wind always flows from HIGH pressure → LOW pressure.

• So winds blow from the cool ocean TOWARDS the hot land = Southwest Monsoon.

• These ocean winds carry moisture → rains fall when they reach the hot land.

• In WINTER: Land cools rapidly → HIGH pressure. Ocean is warmer → LOW pressure.

• Winds reverse: blow from land → ocean = Northeast Monsoon (mostly dry).

✏️ Answer:

• The Western Ghats are a mountain range along India’s western coast (topography factor).

• They act as a NATURAL BARRIER for the SW monsoon winds.

• When monsoon winds hit the Ghats, they are forced upward, cool down, and release HEAVY rainfall on the WESTERN slopes (Konkan coast, Kerala, Goa).

• By the time the winds cross the Ghats to the east (Deccan Plateau), they have lost most of their moisture.

• So the Deccan plateau receives LESS rainfall, often with interruptions.

• This is why Kerala gets much more rain than Maharashtra’s inland areas.

✏️ Answer:

• An urban heat island is a microclimate where a city is significantly WARMER than the surrounding rural areas.

• Forms because: buildings, roads, and concrete surfaces absorb and retain heat; very little vegetation to cool the area.

• Lack of trees means no evaporation cooling; concrete radiates heat back at night.

• Vehicles and factories also add heat.

• Effect: City can be several degrees warmer than nearby countryside.

• Example: Delhi and Mumbai are noticeably warmer than rural areas around them.

✏️ Answer:

• Climate (especially monsoon) directly affects agriculture, which supports most of India’s rural economy.

• Monsoon FAILURE (poor rainfall) effects:

  → Crops fail → food shortages → grains, vegetables, fruits become expensive → inflation rises

  → Women walk long distances for water

  → Agricultural labourers migrate to cities looking for work

  → Industries that depend on water or agriculture are also affected

• Good monsoon: full rivers, groundwater recharge, bumper crops, lower food prices, better rural incomes.

• Climate also affects hydroelectric power, tourism, small industries.

SECTION B: Exercise Questions (End of Chapter)

✏️ Answer:

(1) Latitude → (b) Creates different climates in the north and south

(2) Altitude → (c) Keeps higher places cooler

(3) Proximity to the ocean → (d) Moderates the temperature

(4) Monsoon winds → (a) Brings wet air to India during summer

✏️ Answer:

• WEATHER = The short-term state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place.

  It changes from hour to hour and day to day. (e.g., ‘It is raining and windy today.’)

• CLIMATE = The long-term pattern of weather in a region, observed over decades (30+ years).

  It changes very slowly. (e.g., ‘Mumbai has a hot, humid, rainy climate with heavy monsoon.’)

• Key: Weather is what you get; climate is what you expect!

✏️ Answer:

• The sea absorbs heat SLOWLY in summer (so it stays cool, cooling the nearby land).

• The sea loses heat SLOWLY in winter (so it stays warm, warming the nearby land).

• This moderating effect means coastal areas don’t get too hot in summer or too cold in winter.

• Inland areas have no such moderation → extreme heat in summer and extreme cold in winter.

• Example: Mumbai (coast) – 32°C summer, 18°C winter. Nagpur (inland) – 44°C summer, 10°C winter.

✏️ Answer:

• Southwest Monsoon (June–Sep): Brings moisture from the Indian Ocean → heavy rain over most of India.

  → Fills rivers, recharges groundwater, enables agriculture, cools the land after hot summer.

• Northeast Monsoon (Oct–Dec): Dry winds blowing land → ocean. Part picks up Bay of Bengal moisture.

  → Brings rainfall to east and south India (Tamil Nadu, AP, Puducherry).

• Monsoons influence: crop calendar, water availability, festivals, economic activity.

• Without monsoon winds, India would be much drier and food production would collapse.

✏️ Answer:

• CHENNAI:

  → Located on the eastern coast at low latitude (13°N), close to the Equator.

  → Low latitude = Sun’s rays hit at a steep/perpendicular angle = concentrated heat = hot.

  → Near the sea = humidity, moisture; warm throughout the year.

  → Receives NE Monsoon rains (Oct–Dec).

• LEH (Ladakh):

  → Located at very high altitude (~3500m+) in the Himalayas.

  → High altitude = lower pressure = thinner air = less heat retention = very cold.

  → Also at higher latitude = sun’s rays more oblique = less heat.

  → Far from the sea = no moderating effect; very dry.

  → Result: Extremely cold winters (-30°C), cool summers, very little rain.

City

Location Type

Climate Type

Characteristics

Leh (Ladakh)

High altitude mountains (3500m+)

Alpine / Cold Desert

Very cold winters (-30°C), cool summers, very low rainfall, thin air

Chennai (Tamil Nadu)

Eastern coast, near sea, low latitude

Tropical (Hot & Humid)

Hot throughout the year; receives NE monsoon rains (Oct–Dec)

Delhi

Northern plains, inland, higher latitude

Subtropical

Hot summers (42°C+), cold winters (5°C), monsoon in July–Aug

Panaji (Goa)

Western coast, near sea

Tropical Wet

Hot, high humidity; heavy SW monsoon rain; mild winters

Jaipur (Rajasthan)

Near Thar Desert, inland

Arid / Semi-Arid

Very hot dry summers, cool winters, very little rain

✏️ Answer:

SUMMER – Southwest Monsoon:

• Land heats up → Low pressure over India

• Winds blow from Indian Ocean (SW direction) → India

• Arrows: From Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal TOWARDS India (pointing northeast into land)

• Heavy rain over India June–September

WINTER – Northeast Monsoon:

• Land cools → High pressure over India

• Winds blow FROM India → Indian Ocean (NE direction)

• Arrows: From northern India, pointing TOWARDS Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean

• Mostly dry winds; some moisture collected over Bay of Bengal brings rain to east/south coast

📓 Farmer’s Diary Entry – June 1st

Today is the 1st of June. The sky has been turning grey for the past few days, and the hot, dry winds have finally begun to soften. The elders in our village say the monsoon will arrive within the week – the frogs have started croaking at night, and the Golden Shower trees have already bloomed.

My family and I have been busy all week. We repaired the boundary walls of our fields to prevent soil from washing away. I checked the irrigation channels and cleared the blocks. We cleaned and stored our tools: the plough, the hoe, and the sickle.

I went to the market to purchase paddy seeds for kharif sowing. I also bought fertiliser and discussed with my neighbour Ramu which crop rotations might work best this year.

The rains mean everything to us. If the monsoon is good, our crops will thrive, the well will refill, and we will have enough to eat and sell. If it fails, we struggle. I pray: may the rains be timely, may the Earth be lush.

Floods in India – Causes, Impacts and Solutions

CAUSES:

Natural: Heavy monsoon rainfall, rivers overflowing their banks, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) in the Himalayas.

Human: Deforestation (less absorption), poor urban drainage, encroachment on riverbeds, concrete surfaces that don’t absorb water.

IMPACTS:

• Human: Loss of life, diseases spread (contaminated water), displacement of families.

• Agricultural: Crops destroyed, soil eroded, livestock lost.

• Economic: Roads/bridges damaged, industries halted, relief operations costly.

PREVENTION MEASURES:

Individual: Avoid building near floodplains, plant trees, not dump waste in drainage channels.

Community: Maintain local drainage, create community flood shelters, early warning systems.

Government: Strengthen embankments, improve urban drainage, deploy NDRF, use IMD warnings, AWS monitoring of glacial lakes.

SECTION C: Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blanks with the correct word:

1. _____________ is the long-term pattern of weather in a region. (Answer: Climate)

2. The word ‘monsoon’ comes from the Arabic word _____________ meaning ‘season’. (Answer: mausim)

3. Places near the Equator (low latitudes) are _____________ than places near the poles. (Answer: warmer / hotter)

4. As altitude increases, temperature _____________. (Answer: decreases)

5. The _____________ acts as a natural barrier for the southwest monsoon. (Answer: Western Ghats)

6. Southwest monsoon starts at the southern tip of India in early _____________ and covers all of India by mid-_____________. (Answer: June; July)

7. The cloudless centre of a cyclone is called the _____________ of the cyclone. (Answer: eye)

8. _____________ in Meghalaya receives the highest average annual rainfall in the world (~11,000 mm). (Answer: Mawsynram)

9. A _____________ is a climate localised in a small area, different from the surrounding region. (Answer: microclimate)

10. _____________ fuels are formed from remains of ancient plants and animals. (Answer: Fossil)

11. The natural _____________ effect warms the Earth by trapping heat from the sun. (Answer: greenhouse)

12. The sudden collapse of rock or soil down a slope is called a _____________. (Answer: landslide)

13. _____________ is the sudden breaking of a glacial lake barrier causing devastating floods. (Answer: Glacial burst)

14. The _____________ Response Force (NDRF) is specially trained for disaster rescue. (Answer: National Disaster)

15. India traditionally has _____________ seasons or ṛitus. (Answer: six / 6)

SECTION D: Match the Following

Column A

Column B (Answer)

Latitude

Angle of sun’s rays; low latitude = hot, high = cold

Altitude

Higher = cooler; less pressure, less dense air

Proximity to sea

Moderates temperature; coastal areas less extreme

Topography

Mountains block winds; shape rainfall patterns

SW Monsoon

June–Sep; ocean → land; heavy rain over India

NE Monsoon

Oct–Dec; land → ocean; rain to east & south India

Mawsynram

World’s highest average annual rainfall (~11,000 mm)

Eye of cyclone

Cloudless, calm centre of a storm

Fossil fuels

Coal, petroleum, natural gas → cause global warming when burned

Microclimate

Localised climate different from surrounding area

Mitigation

Steps to slow global warming and reduce climate change

NDRF

National Disaster Response Force; 12 locations in India

Glacial burst

Sudden break of glacial lake barrier = devastating flood

SECTION E: True or False

1. Climate changes from hour to hour like weather does.  → FALSE – Climate is long-term (decades). Weather changes hourly/daily.

2. India has only four seasons like most of the world.  → FALSE – India traditionally has 6 seasons (ṛitus), including monsoon.

3. Higher altitude means warmer temperatures.  → FALSE – Higher altitude means COOLER temperatures.

4. Coastal cities have more extreme temperatures than inland cities.  → FALSE – Coastal cities have MILDER (less extreme) temperatures. Inland cities have more extreme ranges.

5. The southwest monsoon winds blow from land to ocean.  → FALSE – SW monsoon winds blow from OCEAN → LAND (bringing moisture and rain).

6. Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the highest rainfall in the world.  → TRUE

7. The eye of a cyclone is the most destructive part.  → FALSE – The eye is the CALM, cloudless centre. The surrounding wall is the most destructive.

8. Fossil fuels are formed from recently dead plants and animals.  → FALSE – Fossil fuels formed from organisms that died MILLIONS of years ago.

9. Planting trees helps reduce climate change.  → TRUE – Trees absorb CO₂, reducing the greenhouse effect.

10. NDRF has 12 battalion locations across India.  → TRUE

SECTION F: Short Answer Questions

✏️ Answer:

• NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT (GOOD): CO₂ and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap some of the sun’s heat.

  This keeps Earth warm enough to support life (~15°C average). Without it, Earth would be frozen.

• ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT (BAD): Human activities release EXTRA greenhouse gases (burning fossil fuels, deforestation, etc.)

  This traps extra heat → Earth gets too warm too quickly = GLOBAL WARMING.

• Result: Disruption of climate patterns; more extreme weather; melting glaciers; rising sea levels; loss of biodiversity.

✏️ Answer:

• These states are located near major rivers (Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari) that receive heavy monsoon rainfall.

• Bihar and UP: Low-lying Gangetic plains; rivers overflow easily during heavy monsoon.

• Assam: Brahmaputra valley + heavy Northeast rainfall + hills that shed water into plains.

• Kerala: Western Ghats + heavy SW Monsoon + hilly terrain = rapid runoff into rivers and backwaters.

• Human causes: deforestation on hillsides, encroachment on floodplains, poor urban drainage systems.

✏️ Answer:

• Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.

• Example 1 – Glacial Burst: Rising temperatures accelerate glacial melting → glacial lakes fill faster → more frequent GLOF (glacial lake outburst floods) in the Himalayas.

  (e.g., 2013 Uttarakhand disaster = ~6,000 deaths near Kedarnath)

• Example 2 – Cyclones: Warmer sea surface temperatures provide more energy to cyclones → stronger, more frequent cyclones on India’s coasts.

• Also: Irregular monsoon, longer droughts, shorter winters, more extreme heat waves.

✏️ Answer:

1. BIHU (Assam, April) – Celebrates Assamese New Year and the spring harvest season; marks the beginning of the agricultural year.

2. BAISAKHI (Punjab/Haryana, April 13) – Celebrates the harvest of wheat; marks thanksgiving after the rabi (winter) harvest.

3. ONAM (Kerala, Aug–Sep) – Harvest festival at the end of the SW monsoon; celebrates a bountiful rice harvest.

4. PONGAL (Tamil Nadu, Jan 14–17) – 4-day harvest festival; thanks the Sun God for a successful harvest after NE monsoon rains.

📖 GLOSSARY – KEY TERMS

Term

Meaning

Weather

Short-term state of atmosphere at a specific time and place

Climate

Long-term pattern of weather in a region over decades (30+ years)

Season

A period of recurring weather lasting a few months each year

Ṛitu

Traditional Indian term for season; there are 6 ṛitus in Indian calendar

Latitude

Distance from the Equator; low latitude = hot, high latitude = cold

Altitude

Height above sea level; higher altitude = cooler temperature

Topography

Total physical surface features of an area: mountains, hills, valleys, coasts

Monsoon

From Arabic ‘mausim’ (season); seasonal winds causing heavy rainfall

SW Monsoon

Southwest monsoon; Jun–Sep; ocean winds → India; brings heavy rain

NE Monsoon

Northeast monsoon; Oct–Dec; land → ocean winds; rain for east coast

Alpine Climate

Cold, snowy winters, cool summers; found in Himalayan mountains

Temperate Climate

Moderately cold winters, not too hot summers; found in hill stations

Subtropical

Very hot summers, cold winters; found in northern plains

Arid Climate

Very dry, hot days, cool nights, very little rain; found in deserts

Tropical Wet

Heavy monsoon rain; hot and humid; found on western coastal strip

Semi-Arid

Hot summers, mild winters, moderate rain; Deccan Plateau

Microclimate

Climate localised in a small area, different from surroundings

Urban Heat Island

City that is warmer than surrounding areas due to buildings/concrete

Cyclone

Intense rotating storm; forms over warm sea with low pressure centre

Eye of Cyclone

Cloudless, calm centre of a cyclone

Flood

Water overflowing into normally dry land

Glacial Burst (GLOF)

Sudden break of glacial lake barrier causing devastating floods

Landslide

Sudden collapse of rock/soil/debris down a slope

Forest Fire

Uncontrolled fire spreading through vegetation; can be natural or human-caused

Climate Change

Significant long-term shifts in global/regional climate patterns

Fossil Fuels

Coal, petroleum, natural gas; formed from ancient organisms

Greenhouse Effect

CO₂ trapping sun’s heat; natural = good; enhanced by humans = bad

Global Warming

Rapid rise in Earth’s temperature due to extra greenhouse gases

NDRF

National Disaster Response Force; 12 locations; rescue & evacuation

Mitigation

Steps to slow global warming and reduce climate change causes

Resilience

Capacity to withstand or recover from difficulties

Sustainable

Something that can be maintained over a long period of time

🌧️ India’s climate is as diverse as its people – understand it to live in harmony with nature! 🌧️

kāle varṣhatu parjanyaha pṛiṭhivī sasyaśhālinī – May the rains be timely, may the Earth be lush!